fallacy-fallacy

The Fallacy Fallacy

Business / By / November 25, 2023

The Fallacy Fallacy is a logical fallacy that occurs when someone incorrectly concludes that a given argument is false or invalid simply because it contains a logical fallacy. In other words, it involves dismissing an entire argument as incorrect solely based on the presence of a fallacious element, without considering the merits of the argument itself.

AspectDescription
Key Elements1. Rejecting an Argument Based on Fallacy: This fallacy involves the rejection of an argument, assertion, or claim because it contains a logical fallacy. 2. Failure to Evaluate the Argument: It neglects the need to assess the argument’s substance, evidence, and reasoning independently of the fallacy. 3. Misapplication of Critical Thinking: The Fallacy Fallacy reflects a misapplication of critical thinking by assuming that the presence of a fallacy automatically invalidates the entire argument. 4. Potential for Hasty Conclusions: It can lead to premature judgments about the validity of an argument without a comprehensive analysis.
Common ApplicationThe Fallacy Fallacy can be encountered in debates, discussions, and critical thinking contexts when individuals wrongly dismiss an argument without adequately assessing its substance, evidence, or reasoning due to the identification of a fallacy.
ExampleRejecting a well-supported scientific theory because a proponent of the theory used a personal attack (ad hominem fallacy) in their argument.
ImportanceRecognizing the Fallacy Fallacy is important for effective critical thinking and argument evaluation because it emphasizes the need to assess arguments on their merits rather than dismissing them solely based on fallacious elements.
Case StudyImplicationAnalysisExample
Scientific Theory DebateHinders objective assessment of scientific claims.Dismissing a well-supported scientific theory because a proponent of the theory used a personal attack (ad hominem fallacy) in their argument. This prevents an objective evaluation of the theory’s empirical evidence and merits.Rejecting a well-established theory of evolution because a scientist defending it resorted to a personal attack during a debate.
Political DebateUndermines constructive political discourse.Rejecting an argument about a proposed policy change due to the opponent’s use of a straw man fallacy in their argument. This hasty rejection hinders productive political discussions and overlooks the potential merits of the proposed policy.Dismissing a proposed tax reform because an opponent misrepresented the proposal using a straw man fallacy.
Legal ArgumentImpairs the pursuit of justice.Dismissing a legal defense’s argument because the defense attorney committed the fallacy of appealing to ignorance (argument from ignorance) in their case. This may prevent a fair evaluation of the defendant’s innocence or guilt.Refusing to consider the possibility of a defendant’s innocence because the defense attorney used an argument from ignorance fallacy.
Ethical Dilemma DiscussionHinders ethical decision-making.Rejecting a moral argument for or against a particular action because one side committed the fallacy of equivocation in their reasoning. This impedes a balanced consideration of ethical consequences and principles.Dismissing a discussion on the ethics of euthanasia because one participant used the fallacy of equivocation in their argument.
Environmental Policy DebateImpedes informed environmental decisions.Dismissing an argument in favor of renewable energy policies because a proponent used a red herring fallacy by diverting attention to unrelated topics. This may prevent a thorough evaluation of the environmental benefits and drawbacks.Rejecting a proposal to invest in renewable energy sources because an advocate used a red herring fallacy by discussing unrelated economic issues.

Introduction/Definition

The Fallacy Fallacy is a type of logical error that occurs when someone incorrectly assumes that because an argument contains a logical fallacy, its conclusion must be false. In essence, it involves mistaking the quality of an argument’s structure (i.e., whether it follows a valid logical form) for the truth or falsehood of its conclusion. While identifying and pointing out logical fallacies is an important aspect of critical thinking and argumentation, it does not, by itself, prove that the conclusion is incorrect.

Key Characteristics of the Fallacy Fallacy:

Key Characteristics

  1. Judging Based on Structure: The Fallacy Fallacy arises from the mistaken belief that the presence of a logical fallacy in an argument’s structure automatically renders its conclusion false.
  2. Failure to Evaluate Evidence: It often involves dismissing an argument without thoroughly evaluating the evidence or reasons provided to support the conclusion.
  3. Misinterpretation of Fallacy: Individuals committing the Fallacy Fallacy may misunderstand the nature or significance of the fallacy, leading to an incorrect assessment of the argument.
  4. Potential for Ambiguity: In some cases, an argument may contain a fallacy but still have a true or reasonable conclusion.
  5. Failure to Engage in Constructive Debate: Relying solely on identifying fallacies can hinder constructive debate and engagement with opposing viewpoints.

Examples of the Fallacy Fallacy

To illustrate the concept of the Fallacy Fallacy, let’s examine some common examples:

1. Ad Hominem Fallacy

Scenario: Person A argues that increasing funding for public education is necessary to improve schools. Person B responds by saying, “Well, you’re just a teacher, so you’re biased. Your argument is invalid.”

Explanation: In this scenario, Person B commits an ad hominem fallacy by attacking Person A’s character rather than addressing the argument’s merits. However, even though Person B’s response contains a fallacy, it doesn’t automatically mean that increasing funding for public education is not necessary or that Person A’s conclusion is false.

2. Appeal to Authority Fallacy

Scenario: A scientist presents research indicating that climate change is a serious threat. A skeptic responds by saying, “That scientist has made mistakes in the past, so we can’t trust this research.”

Explanation: The skeptic commits an appeal to authority fallacy by dismissing the scientist’s research based on their past errors. However, the conclusion that climate change is a serious threat should be evaluated on the basis of the evidence and data presented in the research, not the fallacy in the skeptic’s response.

3. Straw Man Fallacy

Scenario: Person A argues for stricter gun control measures to reduce firearm-related violence. Person B responds by misrepresenting Person A’s argument, saying, “So you want to take away all our guns and leave us defenseless?”

Explanation: Person B commits a straw man fallacy by distorting Person A’s argument. However, the presence of the fallacy in Person B’s response doesn’t automatically invalidate the need for some form of gun control or regulation.

4. Slippery Slope Fallacy

Scenario: A proponent of healthcare reform argues that implementing universal healthcare would lead to improved access and reduced healthcare costs. An opponent responds by saying, “If we allow universal healthcare, it’s a slippery slope to socialism and government control of everything.”

Explanation: The opponent commits a slippery slope fallacy by suggesting an extreme consequence without providing evidence. However, this fallacious response doesn’t prove or disprove the merits of universal healthcare itself.

5. Appeal to Tradition Fallacy

Scenario: Person A advocates for updating a traditional recipe by using healthier ingredients. Person B dismisses the idea, saying, “We’ve been making it this way for generations. Changing it would ruin the recipe.”

Explanation: Person B commits an appeal to tradition fallacy by opposing change solely because it deviates from tradition. However, the fallacy in Person B’s argument doesn’t determine whether the updated recipe would be better or worse.

Implications of the Fallacy Fallacy

The Fallacy Fallacy can have several significant implications and consequences:

1. Missed Opportunities for Dialogue

It can hinder constructive dialogue and meaningful engagement with opposing viewpoints when individuals dismiss arguments based solely on the identification of fallacies.

2. Reductionist Thinking

The Fallacy Fallacy encourages reductionist thinking, where complex arguments are reduced to their fallacious elements without considering the underlying evidence.

3. Failure to Recognize Nuance

It may lead to a failure to recognize the nuances in arguments, as individuals may focus solely on identifying fallacies rather than evaluating the overall context and evidence.

4. Missed Opportunities for Learning

Dismissing arguments based on fallacies alone can deprive individuals of opportunities to learn and refine their critical thinking skills through engagement with differing perspectives.

5. Polarization

The Fallacy Fallacy can contribute to polarization by reinforcing preconceived beliefs and discouraging open-mindedness.

Avoiding the Fallacy Fallacy

To avoid falling into the trap of the Fallacy Fallacy, consider the following strategies:

1. Evaluate Arguments Holistically

Assess arguments in their entirety, taking into account both their structure and the evidence or reasons provided to support the conclusion.

2. Avoid Hasty Conclusions

Refrain from automatically concluding that an argument’s conclusion is false simply because it contains a fallacy. Take the time to evaluate the argument and consider the quality of its evidence.

3. Address Fallacies Constructively

If you identify a fallacy in an argument, address it constructively by pointing out the fallacy and explaining why it doesn’t necessarily invalidate the conclusion.

4. Seek Common Ground

In debates or discussions, strive to find common ground and areas of agreement before delving into areas of disagreement. This can foster more productive and respectful dialogue.

5. Promote Critical Thinking

Encourage critical thinking and open-mindedness in discussions by focusing on the quality of arguments and evidence rather than the presence of fallacies.

Real-World Significance

The Fallacy Fallacy is relevant in various aspects of life, including debates, discussions, education, and decision-making:

1. Debates and Discussions

In debates and discussions, individuals may prematurely dismiss opposing arguments based solely on the identification of fallacies, preventing productive dialogue.

2. Education

In educational settings, the Fallacy Fallacy can hinder students’ ability to engage critically with arguments and explore complex issues.

3. Decision-Making

In decision-making processes, the fallacy can lead to missed opportunities for considering alternative viewpoints and evidence.

4. Public Discourse

Public discourse and media discussions can be polarized when participants focus on identifying fallacies rather than addressing the substance of arguments.

5. Interpersonal Relationships

The Fallacy Fallacy can affect interpersonal relationships when individuals dismiss each other’s perspectives without thoughtful consideration.

Conclusion

The Fallacy Fallacy is a common error in reasoning that involves incorrectly concluding that an argument’s conclusion is false simply because it contains a logical fallacy. While identifying fallacies is an important part of critical thinking, it is essential to recognize that a fallacious argument structure does not, by itself, prove or disprove the truth of a conclusion. Avoiding the Fallacy Fallacy requires evaluating arguments holistically, considering the quality of evidence, and fostering constructive dialogue that promotes critical thinking and open-mindedness.

Connected Thinking Frameworks

Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking

convergent-vs-divergent-thinking
Convergent thinking occurs when the solution to a problem can be found by applying established rules and logical reasoning. Whereas divergent thinking is an unstructured problem-solving method where participants are encouraged to develop many innovative ideas or solutions to a given problem. Where convergent thinking might work for larger, mature organizations where divergent thinking is more suited for startups and innovative companies.

Critical Thinking

critical-thinking
Critical thinking involves analyzing observations, facts, evidence, and arguments to form a judgment about what someone reads, hears, says, or writes.

Biases

biases
The concept of cognitive biases was introduced and popularized by the work of Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972. Biases are seen as systematic errors and flaws that make humans deviate from the standards of rationality, thus making us inept at making good decisions under uncertainty.

Second-Order Thinking

second-order-thinking
Second-order thinking is a means of assessing the implications of our decisions by considering future consequences. Second-order thinking is a mental model that considers all future possibilities. It encourages individuals to think outside of the box so that they can prepare for every and eventuality. It also discourages the tendency for individuals to default to the most obvious choice.

Lateral Thinking

lateral-thinking
Lateral thinking is a business strategy that involves approaching a problem from a different direction. The strategy attempts to remove traditionally formulaic and routine approaches to problem-solving by advocating creative thinking, therefore finding unconventional ways to solve a known problem. This sort of non-linear approach to problem-solving, can at times, create a big impact.

Bounded Rationality

bounded-rationality
Bounded rationality is a concept attributed to Herbert Simon, an economist and political scientist interested in decision-making and how we make decisions in the real world. In fact, he believed that rather than optimizing (which was the mainstream view in the past decades) humans follow what he called satisficing.

Dunning-Kruger Effect

dunning-kruger-effect
The Dunning-Kruger effect describes a cognitive bias where people with low ability in a task overestimate their ability to perform that task well. Consumers or businesses that do not possess the requisite knowledge make bad decisions. What’s more, knowledge gaps prevent the person or business from seeing their mistakes.

Occam’s Razor

occams-razor
Occam’s Razor states that one should not increase (beyond reason) the number of entities required to explain anything. All things being equal, the simplest solution is often the best one. The principle is attributed to 14th-century English theologian William of Ockham.

Lindy Effect

lindy-effect
The Lindy Effect is a theory about the ageing of non-perishable things, like technology or ideas. Popularized by author Nicholas Nassim Taleb, the Lindy Effect states that non-perishable things like technology age – linearly – in reverse. Therefore, the older an idea or a technology, the same will be its life expectancy.

Antifragility

antifragility
Antifragility was first coined as a term by author, and options trader Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Antifragility is a characteristic of systems that thrive as a result of stressors, volatility, and randomness. Therefore, Antifragile is the opposite of fragile. Where a fragile thing breaks up to volatility; a robust thing resists volatility. An antifragile thing gets stronger from volatility (provided the level of stressors and randomness doesn’t pass a certain threshold).

Ergodicity

ergodicity
Ergodicity is one of the most important concepts in statistics. Ergodicity is a mathematical concept suggesting that a point of a moving system will eventually visit all parts of the space the system moves in. On the opposite side, non-ergodic means that a system doesn’t visit all the possible parts, as there are absorbing barriers

Systems Thinking

systems-thinking
Systems thinking is a holistic means of investigating the factors and interactions that could contribute to a potential outcome. It is about thinking non-linearly, and understanding the second-order consequences of actions and input into the system.

Vertical Thinking

vertical-thinking
Vertical thinking, on the other hand, is a problem-solving approach that favors a selective, analytical, structured, and sequential mindset. The focus of vertical thinking is to arrive at a reasoned, defined solution.

Metaphorical Thinking

metaphorical-thinking
Metaphorical thinking describes a mental process in which comparisons are made between qualities of objects usually considered to be separate classifications.  Metaphorical thinking is a mental process connecting two different universes of meaning and is the result of the mind looking for similarities.

Maslow’s Hammer

einstellung-effect
Maslow’s Hammer, otherwise known as the law of the instrument or the Einstellung effect, is a cognitive bias causing an over-reliance on a familiar tool. This can be expressed as the tendency to overuse a known tool (perhaps a hammer) to solve issues that might require a different tool. This problem is persistent in the business world where perhaps known tools or frameworks might be used in the wrong context (like business plans used as planning tools instead of only investors’ pitches).

Peter Principle

peter-principle
The Peter Principle was first described by Canadian sociologist Lawrence J. Peter in his 1969 book The Peter Principle. The Peter Principle states that people are continually promoted within an organization until they reach their level of incompetence.

Straw Man Fallacy

straw-man-fallacy
The straw man fallacy describes an argument that misrepresents an opponent’s stance to make rebuttal more convenient. The straw man fallacy is a type of informal logical fallacy, defined as a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders it invalid.

Google Effect

google-effect
The Google effect is a tendency for individuals to forget information that is readily available through search engines. During the Google effect – sometimes called digital amnesia – individuals have an excessive reliance on digital information as a form of memory recall.

Streisand Effect

streisand-effect
The Streisand Effect is a paradoxical phenomenon where the act of suppressing information to reduce visibility causes it to become more visible. In 2003, Streisand attempted to suppress aerial photographs of her Californian home by suing photographer Kenneth Adelman for an invasion of privacy. Adelman, who Streisand assumed was paparazzi, was instead taking photographs to document and study coastal erosion. In her quest for more privacy, Streisand’s efforts had the opposite effect.

Compromise Effect

compromise-effect
Single-attribute choices – such as choosing the apartment with the lowest rent – are relatively simple. However, most of the decisions consumers make are based on multiple attributes which complicate the decision-making process. The compromise effect states that a consumer is more likely to choose the middle option of a set of products over more extreme options.

Butterfly Effect

butterfly-effect
In business, the butterfly effect describes the phenomenon where the simplest actions yield the largest rewards. The butterfly effect was coined by meteorologist Edward Lorenz in 1960 and as a result, it is most often associated with weather in pop culture. Lorenz noted that the small action of a butterfly fluttering its wings had the potential to cause progressively larger actions resulting in a typhoon.

IKEA Effect

ikea-effect
The IKEA effect is a cognitive bias that describes consumers’ tendency to value something more if they have made it themselves. That is why brands often use the IKEA effect to have customizations for final products, as they help the consumer relate to it more and therefore appending to it more value.

Ringelmann Effect 

Ringelmann Effect
The Ringelmann effect describes the tendency for individuals within a group to become less productive as the group size increases.

The Overview Effect

overview-effect
The overview effect is a cognitive shift reported by some astronauts when they look back at the Earth from space. The shift occurs because of the impressive visual spectacle of the Earth and tends to be characterized by a state of awe and increased self-transcendence.

House Money Effect

house-money-effect
The house money effect was first described by researchers Richard Thaler and Eric Johnson in a 1990 study entitled Gambling with the House Money and Trying to Break Even: The Effects of Prior Outcomes on Risky Choice. The house money effect is a cognitive bias where investors take higher risks on reinvested capital than they would on an initial investment.

Heuristic

heuristic
As highlighted by German psychologist Gerd Gigerenzer in the paper “Heuristic Decision Making,” the term heuristic is of Greek origin, meaning “serving to find out or discover.” More precisely, a heuristic is a fast and accurate way to make decisions in the real world, which is driven by uncertainty.

Recognition Heuristic

recognition-heuristic
The recognition heuristic is a psychological model of judgment and decision making. It is part of a suite of simple and economical heuristics proposed by psychologists Daniel Goldstein and Gerd Gigerenzer. The recognition heuristic argues that inferences are made about an object based on whether it is recognized or not.

Representativeness Heuristic

representativeness-heuristic
The representativeness heuristic was first described by psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky. The representativeness heuristic judges the probability of an event according to the degree to which that event resembles a broader class. When queried, most will choose the first option because the description of John matches the stereotype we may hold for an archaeologist.

Take-The-Best Heuristic

take-the-best-heuristic
The take-the-best heuristic is a decision-making shortcut that helps an individual choose between several alternatives. The take-the-best (TTB) heuristic decides between two or more alternatives based on a single good attribute, otherwise known as a cue. In the process, less desirable attributes are ignored.

Bundling Bias

bundling-bias
The bundling bias is a cognitive bias in e-commerce where a consumer tends not to use all of the products bought as a group, or bundle. Bundling occurs when individual products or services are sold together as a bundle. Common examples are tickets and experiences. The bundling bias dictates that consumers are less likely to use each item in the bundle. This means that the value of the bundle and indeed the value of each item in the bundle is decreased.

Barnum Effect

barnum-effect
The Barnum Effect is a cognitive bias where individuals believe that generic information – which applies to most people – is specifically tailored for themselves.

Anchoring Effect

anchoring-effect
The anchoring effect describes the human tendency to rely on an initial piece of information (the “anchor”) to make subsequent judgments or decisions. Price anchoring, then, is the process of establishing a price point that customers can reference when making a buying decision.

Decoy Effect

decoy-effect
The decoy effect is a psychological phenomenon where inferior – or decoy – options influence consumer preferences. Businesses use the decoy effect to nudge potential customers toward the desired target product. The decoy effect is staged by placing a competitor product and a decoy product, which is primarily used to nudge the customer toward the target product.

Commitment Bias

commitment-bias
Commitment bias describes the tendency of an individual to remain committed to past behaviors – even if they result in undesirable outcomes. The bias is particularly pronounced when such behaviors are performed publicly. Commitment bias is also known as escalation of commitment.

First-Principles Thinking

first-principles-thinking
First-principles thinking – sometimes called reasoning from first principles – is used to reverse-engineer complex problems and encourage creativity. It involves breaking down problems into basic elements and reassembling them from the ground up. Elon Musk is among the strongest proponents of this way of thinking.

Ladder Of Inference

ladder-of-inference
The ladder of inference is a conscious or subconscious thinking process where an individual moves from a fact to a decision or action. The ladder of inference was created by academic Chris Argyris to illustrate how people form and then use mental models to make decisions.

Goodhart’s Law

goodharts-law
Goodhart’s Law is named after British monetary policy theorist and economist Charles Goodhart. Speaking at a conference in Sydney in 1975, Goodhart said that “any observed statistical regularity will tend to collapse once pressure is placed upon it for control purposes.” Goodhart’s Law states that when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure.

Six Thinking Hats Model

six-thinking-hats-model
The Six Thinking Hats model was created by psychologist Edward de Bono in 1986, who noted that personality type was a key driver of how people approached problem-solving. For example, optimists view situations differently from pessimists. Analytical individuals may generate ideas that a more emotional person would not, and vice versa.

Mandela Effect

mandela-effect
The Mandela effect is a phenomenon where a large group of people remembers an event differently from how it occurred. The Mandela effect was first described in relation to Fiona Broome, who believed that former South African President Nelson Mandela died in prison during the 1980s. While Mandela was released from prison in 1990 and died 23 years later, Broome remembered news coverage of his death in prison and even a speech from his widow. Of course, neither event occurred in reality. But Broome was later to discover that she was not the only one with the same recollection of events.

Crowding-Out Effect

crowding-out-effect
The crowding-out effect occurs when public sector spending reduces spending in the private sector.

Bandwagon Effect

bandwagon-effect
The bandwagon effect tells us that the more a belief or idea has been adopted by more people within a group, the more the individual adoption of that idea might increase within the same group. This is the psychological effect that leads to herd mentality. What in marketing can be associated with social proof.

Moore’s Law

moores-law
Moore’s law states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years. This observation was made by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in 1965 and it become a guiding principle for the semiconductor industry and has had far-reaching implications for technology as a whole.

Disruptive Innovation

disruptive-innovation
Disruptive innovation as a term was first described by Clayton M. Christensen, an American academic and business consultant whom The Economist called “the most influential management thinker of his time.” Disruptive innovation describes the process by which a product or service takes hold at the bottom of a market and eventually displaces established competitors, products, firms, or alliances.

Value Migration

value-migration
Value migration was first described by author Adrian Slywotzky in his 1996 book Value Migration – How to Think Several Moves Ahead of the Competition. Value migration is the transferal of value-creating forces from outdated business models to something better able to satisfy consumer demands.

Bye-Now Effect

bye-now-effect
The bye-now effect describes the tendency for consumers to think of the word “buy” when they read the word “bye”. In a study that tracked diners at a name-your-own-price restaurant, each diner was asked to read one of two phrases before ordering their meal. The first phrase, “so long”, resulted in diners paying an average of $32 per meal. But when diners recited the phrase “bye bye” before ordering, the average price per meal rose to $45.

Groupthink

groupthink
Groupthink occurs when well-intentioned individuals make non-optimal or irrational decisions based on a belief that dissent is impossible or on a motivation to conform. Groupthink occurs when members of a group reach a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the alternatives and their consequences.

Stereotyping

stereotyping
A stereotype is a fixed and over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people. These beliefs are based on the false assumption that certain characteristics are common to every individual residing in that group. Many stereotypes have a long and sometimes controversial history and are a direct consequence of various political, social, or economic events. Stereotyping is the process of making assumptions about a person or group of people based on various attributes, including gender, race, religion, or physical traits.

Murphy’s Law

murphys-law
Murphy’s Law states that if anything can go wrong, it will go wrong. Murphy’s Law was named after aerospace engineer Edward A. Murphy. During his time working at Edwards Air Force Base in 1949, Murphy cursed a technician who had improperly wired an electrical component and said, “If there is any way to do it wrong, he’ll find it.”

Law of Unintended Consequences

law-of-unintended-consequences
The law of unintended consequences was first mentioned by British philosopher John Locke when writing to parliament about the unintended effects of interest rate rises. However, it was popularized in 1936 by American sociologist Robert K. Merton who looked at unexpected, unanticipated, and unintended consequences and their impact on society.

Fundamental Attribution Error

fundamental-attribution-error
Fundamental attribution error is a bias people display when judging the behavior of others. The tendency is to over-emphasize personal characteristics and under-emphasize environmental and situational factors.

Outcome Bias

outcome-bias
Outcome bias describes a tendency to evaluate a decision based on its outcome and not on the process by which the decision was reached. In other words, the quality of a decision is only determined once the outcome is known. Outcome bias occurs when a decision is based on the outcome of previous events without regard for how those events developed.

Hindsight Bias

hindsight-bias
Hindsight bias is the tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were. The result of a presidential election, for example, seems more obvious when the winner is announced. The same can also be said for the avid sports fan who predicted the correct outcome of a match regardless of whether their team won or lost. Hindsight bias, therefore, is the tendency for an individual to convince themselves that they accurately predicted an event before it happened.

Read Next: Biases, Bounded Rationality, Mandela Effect, Dunning-Kruger Effect, Lindy Effect, Crowding Out Effect, Bandwagon Effect.

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About The Author

Gennaro is the creator of FourWeekMBA, which reached about four million business people, comprising C-level executives, investors, analysts, product managers, and aspiring digital entrepreneurs in 2022 alone | He is also Director of Sales for a high-tech scaleup in the AI Industry | In 2012, Gennaro earned an International MBA with emphasis on Corporate Finance and Business Strategy.
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