Constructive paranoia is a term coined by author, geographer, and ornithologist Jared Diamond in his 2012 book The World Until Yesterday. Constructive paranoia describes an appreciation (and respect for) low-risk hazards that are encountered frequently. In fact, frequency changes the degree of risk from low to high. Thus it’s important to recognize that seemingly low-risk endeavors, when performed frequently, can become highly-risky actions.
In the book, Diamond describes his experiences studying the tribal people of New Guinea. During one of his trips, he noticed that his native guides refused to sleep under dead trees.
He thought this behavior to be irrational at first, but as he spent more time in the forest, he began to hear trees falling daily.
His guides also shared stories around the campfire each night of friends and relatives who had been killed by falling trees.
Diamond reckoned tribe members spent around 100 nights a year camping in the forest. Even if the chance of being killed by a falling tree was low, this small risk compounded with every night spent amongst the trees.
“If you’re a New Guinean living in the forest, and if you adopt the bad habit of sleeping under dead trees whose odds of falling on you that particular night are only 1 in 1,000, you’ll be dead within a few years”, Diamond noted.
The hypervigilant attitude of the locals toward repeated low-risk activities Diamond called constructive paranoia.
With most New Guineans living a long way from adequate healthcare, they considered the risk of death – no smaller how small – in their decision-making.
Constructive paranoia in the modern world
In the modern world, Diamond argued constructive paranoia was misdirected. Many American citizens exaggerated the risk of an event beyond their control, such as shark attacks, plane crashes, nuclear radiation, and mass shootings.
Conversely, they underestimated the risk of an event under their control which caused them to approach it with a careless attitude.
Here, topics or concepts people are exposed to the most are misconstrued as having a higher chance of occurring. The media is at least partly to blame for this mental shortcut.
It’s important to highlight though, that people in general, have natural filters to understand when situations carry intrinsic and hidden risks. For instance, many intellectuals tend to blame people for their misplaced concerns about terrorism, which seems to carry a very low probability of happening.
Yet, even so, terrorism requires continuous paranoia and extreme attention by everyday people. That is why it also occupies a place in our mind which is greater than other more frequent risks.
In short, also here, it might be easy to blame people for having misplaced worries. Instead, nonetheless the news broken circuit, people still know how to filter information and where to place their attention to.
On the contrary, when people believe that they could never die from engaging in a mundane activity such as driving a car or using a ladder. This is known as the optimism bias, where the individual mistakenly believes they are less likely to experience misfortune and more likely to experience success.
Constructive paranoia in business
In business, constructive paranoia is a common trait of many successful, long-term investors.
Warren Buffett believes investing should be approached in the same way as gambling, where investors protect the downside at all costs.
In his book The Dhandho Investor, author Mohnish Pabrai essentially calls this strategy “heads I win, tails I don’t lose that much.”
To that end, Buffet is risk-averse, preferring to make investments where the potential downside is low (or none at all) if something goes wrong. In short, in business constructive paranoia makes you think outside the box, to devise solutions where you can create an upside, with very very limited downside.
By placing attention on hidden risks carried by everyday business situations, the constrictive paranoid business person can actually identify opportunities where others can’t.
Entrepreneur Richard Branson also used constructive paranoia to his advantage during the early days of Virgin Atlantic. He protected the downside of purchasing a new plane by convincing Boeing to lend him a second-hand 747 for a year.
During a board meeting with directors, Branson argued that in the worst-case scenario, the company would lose six months’ worth of profit and have to give the plane back. Though the tendency is to assume entrepreneurs and investors take all-or-nothing risks, both Buffet and Branson made rational decisions to minimize the potential impact of something going awry.
Case Studies
Health and Safety at Work
In a construction company, employees are trained to have constructive paranoia when working at heights.
They are taught to use safety harnesses, follow strict safety protocols, and double-check their equipment to minimize the risk of falls and accidents.
Cybersecurity
In the world of cybersecurity, individuals and organizations practice constructive paranoia to protect against cyber threats.
They constantly update their security measures, implement strong password policies, and conduct regular security audits to identify and address potential vulnerabilities.
Emergency Preparedness
A city’s emergency management team practices constructive paranoia by conducting regular drills and simulations to prepare for various disaster scenarios.
By being proactive and well-prepared, they can respond effectively to emergencies such as natural disasters or public health crises.
Product Quality Assurance
In a manufacturing company, quality control teams exercise constructive paranoia to ensure product quality.
They perform rigorous testing and inspections at every stage of the production process to detect and address any defects or deviations from quality standards.
Risk Management in Finance
Financial institutions adopt constructive paranoia in risk management to safeguard against financial losses.
They diversify their investment portfolios, conduct stress tests, and develop contingency plans to mitigate potential risks in various market conditions.
Food Safety
In the food industry, companies implement constructive paranoia to maintain food safety standards.
They follow strict hygiene practices, regularly inspect their facilities, and monitor the supply chain to prevent contamination and ensure consumer safety.
Aviation Safety
Airline companies and pilots practice constructive paranoia when it comes to aviation safety.
They adhere to stringent maintenance protocols, undergo regular training and simulations, and follow strict safety procedures to ensure safe flights for passengers.
Environmental Protection
Environmental agencies and organizations practice constructive paranoia to protect the environment from pollution and degradation.
They implement regulations, conduct environmental impact assessments, and monitor compliance to safeguard natural resources and ecosystems.
Data Privacy and Protection
In the digital age, individuals and organizations exercise constructive paranoia to protect their data and privacy.
They use strong encryption, employ secure communication channels, and stay vigilant against phishing and cyberattacks to prevent data breaches.
Disaster Recovery Planning
Businesses develop disaster recovery plans with constructive paranoia to prepare for potential disruptions to their operations.
They back up critical data, establish alternative work sites, and create comprehensive recovery strategies to minimize the impact of disasters.
Key takeaways
Constructive paranoia describes an appreciation (and respect for) low-risk hazards that are encountered frequently. The term was coined by author, geographer, and ornithologist Jared Diamond.
In Western society, the impact of events beyond one’s control is exaggerated. Conversely, the impact of events within one’s control is underestimated. This misdirected form of constructive paranoia is caused by the availability heuristic and optimism bias.
Constructive paranoia is a trait of successful investors such as Warren Buffett, who seeks to minimize the potential downside of an investment decision. Richard Branson also used constructive paranoia to launch Virgin Atlantic.
Key Highlights
Definition: Constructive paranoia, coined by Jared Diamond, refers to recognizing and respecting low-risk hazards encountered frequently. Over time, even seemingly low-risk activities can become highly risky due to their frequency.
Origin: Jared Diamond observed the cautious behavior of native guides in New Guinea who avoided sleeping under dead trees due to the risk of falling trees. This behavior led him to coin the term “constructive paranoia.”
Constructive Paranoia in Tribal Context: Diamond witnessed the hypervigilant behavior of tribal people who avoided seemingly low-risk activities due to their frequent exposure, which compounded the risk over time.
Misdirected Constructive Paranoia in Modern World: Diamond argued that in modern society, people exaggerate the risks of uncontrollable events (availability heuristic) while underestimating risks under their control (optimism bias).
Causes of Misdirected Constructive Paranoia:
Availability Heuristic: Overexposure to certain concepts leads to perceiving them as more likely to occur, influenced by media.
Optimism Bias: Individuals believe they are less likely to experience misfortune and more likely to succeed, affecting their perception of risks.
Constructive Paranoia in Business:
Successful investors like Warren Buffett prioritize downside protection, approaching investing with a “heads I win, tails I don’t lose much” strategy.
Entrepreneurs like Richard Branson use constructive paranoia to minimize potential downsides in business decisions.
In business, it prompts thinking outside the box and identifying hidden risks, leading to opportunities others might miss.
Case Studies and Examples:
Health and Safety at Work: Construction employees practicing safety protocols when working at heights.
Cybersecurity: Constantly updating security measures and conducting audits to prevent cyber threats.
Emergency Preparedness: Conducting drills and simulations for disaster scenarios.
Product Quality Assurance: Rigorous testing and inspections throughout production.
Risk Management in Finance: Diversifying investment portfolios and preparing for market shifts.
Food Safety: Strict hygiene practices and supply chain monitoring to ensure food safety.
Aviation Safety: Adhering to maintenance and safety procedures in the aviation industry.
Environmental Protection: Implementing regulations and monitoring to protect the environment.
Data Privacy and Protection: Using encryption and secure channels to safeguard data.
Disaster Recovery Planning: Developing strategies to mitigate operational disruptions.
Key Takeaways:
Constructive paranoia involves recognizing and respecting low-risk hazards.
In modern society, people often misdirect their concern, exaggerating risks beyond their control and underestimating controllable risks.
Misdirected constructive paranoia is influenced by the availability heuristic and optimism bias.
In business, constructive paranoia promotes downside protection and innovative thinking, leading to opportunities while managing risks.
Related Frameworks
Description
When to Apply
Risk Management
– The process of identifying, assessing, and mitigating risks to minimize potential negative impacts on objectives or projects. Risk Management involves analyzing potential threats and vulnerabilities, implementing controls and safeguards, and monitoring and responding to changes in risk levels over time.
– When planning and executing projects or initiatives to identify, assess, and mitigate potential risks effectively. – Implementing Risk Management processes to minimize negative impacts on objectives or projects effectively.
Scenario Planning
– A strategic planning technique that involves creating and analyzing multiple plausible scenarios or futures to anticipate and prepare for potential challenges and opportunities. Scenario Planning helps organizations explore uncertainties, test assumptions, and develop adaptive strategies to navigate future complexities and disruptions.
– When facing uncertainties or disruptions in the external environment and seeking to develop flexible and adaptive strategies to navigate future challenges and opportunities. – Engaging in Scenario Planning to anticipate and prepare for potential futures effectively.
Preventive Action
– The proactive measures taken to prevent potential problems, errors, or deviations from occurring in processes, products, or services. Preventive Action aims to identify and address root causes or vulnerabilities before they lead to adverse outcomes or nonconformities, thereby improving quality and reliability.
– When seeking to proactively identify and address potential problems, errors, or deviations before they occur in processes, products, or services. – Implementing Preventive Action to improve quality and reliability by addressing root causes or vulnerabilities effectively.
Red Team Testing
– A security assessment technique that involves simulating real-world attacks or scenarios to identify weaknesses and vulnerabilities in systems, processes, or defenses. Red Team Testing helps organizations evaluate their security posture, detect gaps or blind spots, and enhance resilience against potential threats and breaches.
– When assessing the effectiveness of security measures or defenses and seeking to identify weaknesses or vulnerabilities in systems or processes. – Engaging in Red Team Testing to evaluate security posture and enhance resilience against potential threats effectively.
Contingency Planning
– The process of developing strategies and procedures to address and manage potential disruptions, emergencies, or crises that may arise in operations or projects. Contingency Planning involves identifying risks, defining response measures, and establishing communication and recovery protocols to minimize impacts and ensure continuity.
– When preparing for potential disruptions, emergencies, or crises in operations or projects and seeking to minimize impacts and ensure continuity effectively. – Implementing Contingency Planning to develop strategies and procedures for managing potential risks and disruptions.
Resilience Engineering
– An interdisciplinary approach to designing systems, organizations, or processes that can adapt and recover from disruptions, failures, or unexpected events. Resilience Engineering focuses on building flexibility, redundancy, and adaptive capacity to maintain functionality and performance under changing conditions or stressors.
– When designing or improving systems, organizations, or processes to withstand and recover from disruptions, failures, or unexpected events effectively. – Engaging in Resilience Engineering to build flexibility, redundancy, and adaptive capacity to maintain functionality and performance.
Business Continuity Planning (BCP)
– The process of developing and implementing strategies, policies, and procedures to ensure that essential business functions can continue during and after disruptions or disasters. Business Continuity Planning (BCP) aims to identify critical processes, establish recovery objectives, and prioritize resources to minimize downtime and resume operations promptly.
– When preparing for potential disruptions or disasters and seeking to ensure continuity of essential business functions during and after such events. – Implementing Business Continuity Planning (BCP) to identify critical processes and establish recovery objectives effectively.
Crisis Management
– The coordinated response and management of emergencies, disasters, or crises to minimize impacts, protect stakeholders, and maintain organizational stability. Crisis Management involves establishing crisis teams, communication channels, and response plans to assess situations, make decisions, and implement actions effectively under pressure.
– When facing emergencies, disasters, or crises and seeking to minimize impacts, protect stakeholders, and maintain organizational stability effectively. – Engaging in Crisis Management to establish crisis teams, communication channels, and response plans for effective decision-making and action.
Root Cause Analysis (RCA)
– A problem-solving technique that aims to identify the underlying causes or factors contributing to adverse events, incidents, or failures. Root Cause Analysis (RCA) involves systematically analyzing events, tracing causal relationships, and implementing corrective actions to prevent recurrence.
– When investigating adverse events, incidents, or failures and seeking to identify underlying causes or factors to prevent recurrence effectively. – Implementing Root Cause Analysis (RCA) to trace causal relationships and implement corrective actions systematically.
Quality Management Systems (QMS)
– A set of policies, processes, and procedures for managing and improving quality throughout an organization. Quality Management Systems (QMS) focus on meeting customer requirements, enhancing satisfaction, and achieving continuous improvement by implementing quality assurance and control measures.
– When seeking to manage and improve quality throughout an organization by implementing policies, processes, and procedures systematically. – Engaging in Quality Management Systems (QMS) to meet customer requirements and achieve continuous improvement effectively.
Convergent thinking occurs when the solution to a problem can be found by applying established rules and logical reasoning. Whereas divergent thinking is an unstructured problem-solving method where participants are encouraged to develop many innovative ideas or solutions to a given problem. Where convergent thinking might work for larger, mature organizations where divergent thinking is more suited for startups and innovative companies.
The concept of cognitive biases was introduced and popularized by the work of Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972. Biases are seen as systematic errors and flaws that make humans deviate from the standards of rationality, thus making us inept at making good decisions under uncertainty.
Second-order thinking is a means of assessing the implications of our decisions by considering future consequences. Second-order thinking is a mental model that considers all future possibilities. It encourages individuals to think outside of the box so that they can prepare for every and eventuality. It also discourages the tendency for individuals to default to the most obvious choice.
Lateral thinking is a business strategy that involves approaching a problem from a different direction. The strategy attempts to remove traditionally formulaic and routine approaches to problem-solving by advocating creative thinking, therefore finding unconventional ways to solve a known problem. This sort of non-linear approach to problem-solving, can at times, create a big impact.
Bounded rationality is a concept attributed to Herbert Simon, an economist and political scientist interested in decision-making and how we make decisions in the real world. In fact, he believed that rather than optimizing (which was the mainstream view in the past decades) humans follow what he called satisficing.
The Dunning-Kruger effect describes a cognitive bias where people with low ability in a task overestimate their ability to perform that task well. Consumers or businesses that do not possess the requisite knowledge make bad decisions. What’s more, knowledge gaps prevent the person or business from seeing their mistakes.
Occam’s Razor states that one should not increase (beyond reason) the number of entities required to explain anything. All things being equal, the simplest solution is often the best one. The principle is attributed to 14th-century English theologian William of Ockham.
The Lindy Effect is a theory about the ageing of non-perishable things, like technology or ideas. Popularized by author Nicholas Nassim Taleb, the Lindy Effect states that non-perishable things like technology age – linearly – in reverse. Therefore, the older an idea or a technology, the same will be its life expectancy.
Antifragility was first coined as a term by author, and options trader Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Antifragility is a characteristic of systems that thrive as a result of stressors, volatility, and randomness. Therefore, Antifragile is the opposite of fragile. Where a fragile thing breaks up to volatility; a robust thing resists volatility. An antifragile thing gets stronger from volatility (provided the level of stressors and randomness doesn’t pass a certain threshold).
Ergodicity is one of the most important concepts in statistics. Ergodicity is a mathematical concept suggesting that a point of a moving system will eventually visit all parts of the space the system moves in. On the opposite side, non-ergodic means that a system doesn’t visit all the possible parts, as there are absorbing barriers
Systems thinking is a holistic means of investigating the factors and interactions that could contribute to a potential outcome. It is about thinking non-linearly, and understanding the second-order consequences of actions and input into the system.
Vertical thinking, on the other hand, is a problem-solving approach that favors a selective, analytical, structured, and sequential mindset. The focus of vertical thinking is to arrive at a reasoned, defined solution.
Metaphorical thinking describes a mental process in which comparisons are made between qualities of objects usually considered to be separate classifications. Metaphorical thinking is a mental process connecting two different universes of meaning and is the result of the mind looking for similarities.
Maslow’s Hammer, otherwise known as the law of the instrument or the Einstellung effect, is a cognitive bias causing an over-reliance on a familiar tool. This can be expressed as the tendency to overuse a known tool (perhaps a hammer) to solve issues that might require a different tool. This problem is persistent in the business world where perhaps known tools or frameworks might be used in the wrong context (like business plans used as planning tools instead of only investors’ pitches).
The Peter Principle was first described by Canadian sociologist Lawrence J. Peter in his 1969 book The Peter Principle. The Peter Principle states that people are continually promoted within an organization until they reach their level of incompetence.
The straw man fallacy describes an argument that misrepresents an opponent’s stance to make rebuttal more convenient. The straw man fallacy is a type of informal logical fallacy, defined as a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders it invalid.
The Google effect is a tendency for individuals to forget information that is readily available through search engines. During the Google effect – sometimes called digital amnesia – individuals have an excessive reliance on digital information as a form of memory recall.
The Streisand Effect is a paradoxical phenomenon where the act of suppressing information to reduce visibility causes it to become more visible. In 2003, Streisand attempted to suppress aerial photographs of her Californian home by suing photographer Kenneth Adelman for an invasion of privacy. Adelman, who Streisand assumed was paparazzi, was instead taking photographs to document and study coastal erosion. In her quest for more privacy, Streisand’s efforts had the opposite effect.
Single-attribute choices – such as choosing the apartment with the lowest rent – are relatively simple. However, most of the decisions consumers make are based on multiple attributes which complicate the decision-making process. The compromise effect states that a consumer is more likely to choose the middle option of a set of products over more extreme options.
In business, the butterfly effect describes the phenomenon where the simplest actions yield the largest rewards. The butterfly effect was coined by meteorologist Edward Lorenz in 1960 and as a result, it is most often associated with weather in pop culture. Lorenz noted that the small action of a butterfly fluttering its wings had the potential to cause progressively larger actions resulting in a typhoon.
The IKEA effect is a cognitive bias that describes consumers’ tendency to value something more if they have made it themselves. That is why brands often use the IKEA effect to have customizations for final products, as they help the consumer relate to it more and therefore appending to it more value.
The overview effect is a cognitive shift reported by some astronauts when they look back at the Earth from space. The shift occurs because of the impressive visual spectacle of the Earth and tends to be characterized by a state of awe and increased self-transcendence.
The house money effect was first described by researchers Richard Thaler and Eric Johnson in a 1990 study entitled Gambling with the House Money and Trying to Break Even: The Effects of Prior Outcomes on Risky Choice. The house money effect is a cognitive bias where investors take higher risks on reinvested capital than they would on an initial investment.
As highlighted by German psychologist Gerd Gigerenzer in the paper “Heuristic Decision Making,” the term heuristic is of Greek origin, meaning “serving to find out or discover.” More precisely, a heuristic is a fast and accurate way to make decisions in the real world, which is driven by uncertainty.
The recognition heuristic is a psychological model of judgment and decision making. It is part of a suite of simple and economical heuristics proposed by psychologists Daniel Goldstein and Gerd Gigerenzer. The recognition heuristic argues that inferences are made about an object based on whether it is recognized or not.
The representativeness heuristic was first described by psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky. The representativeness heuristic judges the probability of an event according to the degree to which that event resembles a broader class. When queried, most will choose the first option because the description of John matches the stereotype we may hold for an archaeologist.
The take-the-best heuristic is a decision-making shortcut that helps an individual choose between several alternatives. The take-the-best (TTB) heuristic decides between two or more alternatives based on a single good attribute, otherwise known as a cue. In the process, less desirable attributes are ignored.
The bundling bias is a cognitive bias in e-commerce where a consumer tends not to use all of the products bought as a group, or bundle. Bundling occurs when individual products or services are sold together as a bundle. Common examples are tickets and experiences. The bundling bias dictates that consumers are less likely to use each item in the bundle. This means that the value of the bundle and indeed the value of each item in the bundle is decreased.
The Barnum Effect is a cognitive bias where individuals believe that generic information – which applies to most people – is specifically tailored for themselves.
The anchoring effect describes the human tendency to rely on an initial piece of information (the “anchor”) to make subsequent judgments or decisions. Price anchoring, then, is the process of establishing a price point that customers can reference when making a buying decision.
The decoy effect is a psychological phenomenon where inferior – or decoy – options influence consumer preferences. Businesses use the decoy effect to nudge potential customers toward the desired target product. The decoy effect is staged by placing a competitorproduct and a decoy product, which is primarily used to nudge the customer toward the target product.
Commitment bias describes the tendency of an individual to remain committed to past behaviors – even if they result in undesirable outcomes. The bias is particularly pronounced when such behaviors are performed publicly. Commitment bias is also known as escalation of commitment.
First-principles thinking – sometimes called reasoning from first principles – is used to reverse-engineer complex problems and encourage creativity. It involves breaking down problems into basic elements and reassembling them from the ground up. Elon Musk is among the strongest proponents of this way of thinking.
The ladder of inference is a conscious or subconscious thinking process where an individual moves from a fact to a decision or action. The ladder of inference was created by academic Chris Argyris to illustrate how people form and then use mental models to make decisions.
Goodhart’s Law is named after British monetary policy theorist and economist Charles Goodhart. Speaking at a conference in Sydney in 1975, Goodhart said that “any observed statistical regularity will tend to collapse once pressure is placed upon it for control purposes.” Goodhart’s Law states that when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure.
The Six Thinking Hats model was created by psychologist Edward de Bono in 1986, who noted that personality type was a key driver of how people approached problem-solving. For example, optimists view situations differently from pessimists. Analytical individuals may generate ideas that a more emotional person would not, and vice versa.
The Mandela effect is a phenomenon where a large group of people remembers an event differently from how it occurred. The Mandela effect was first described in relation to Fiona Broome, who believed that former South African President Nelson Mandela died in prison during the 1980s. While Mandela was released from prison in 1990 and died 23 years later, Broome remembered news coverage of his death in prison and even a speech from his widow. Of course, neither event occurred in reality. But Broome was later to discover that she was not the only one with the same recollection of events.
The bandwagon effect tells us that the more a belief or idea has been adopted by more people within a group, the more the individual adoption of that idea might increase within the same group. This is the psychological effect that leads to herd mentality. What in marketing can be associated with social proof.
Moore’s law states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years. This observation was made by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in 1965 and it become a guiding principle for the semiconductor industry and has had far-reaching implications for technology as a whole.
Disruptive innovation as a term was first described by Clayton M. Christensen, an American academic and business consultant whom The Economist called “the most influential management thinker of his time.” Disruptive innovation describes the process by which a product or service takes hold at the bottom of a market and eventually displaces established competitors, products, firms, or alliances.
Value migration was first described by author Adrian Slywotzky in his 1996 book Value Migration – How to Think Several Moves Ahead of the Competition. Value migration is the transferal of value-creating forces from outdated business models to something better able to satisfy consumer demands.
The bye-now effect describes the tendency for consumers to think of the word “buy” when they read the word “bye”. In a study that tracked diners at a name-your-own-price restaurant, each diner was asked to read one of two phrases before ordering their meal. The first phrase, “so long”, resulted in diners paying an average of $32 per meal. But when diners recited the phrase “bye bye” before ordering, the average price per meal rose to $45.
Groupthink occurs when well-intentioned individuals make non-optimal or irrational decisions based on a belief that dissent is impossible or on a motivation to conform. Groupthink occurs when members of a group reach a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the alternatives and their consequences.
A stereotype is a fixed and over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people. These beliefs are based on the false assumption that certain characteristics are common to every individual residing in that group. Many stereotypes have a long and sometimes controversial history and are a direct consequence of various political, social, or economic events. Stereotyping is the process of making assumptions about a person or group of people based on various attributes, including gender, race, religion, or physical traits.
Murphy’s Law states that if anything can go wrong, it will go wrong. Murphy’s Law was named after aerospace engineer Edward A. Murphy. During his time working at Edwards Air Force Base in 1949, Murphy cursed a technician who had improperly wired an electrical component and said, “If there is any way to do it wrong, he’ll find it.”
The law of unintended consequences was first mentioned by British philosopher John Locke when writing to parliament about the unintended effects of interest rate rises. However, it was popularized in 1936 by American sociologist Robert K. Merton who looked at unexpected, unanticipated, and unintended consequences and their impact on society.
Fundamental attribution error is a bias people display when judging the behavior of others. The tendency is to over-emphasize personal characteristics and under-emphasize environmental and situational factors.
Outcome bias describes a tendency to evaluate a decision based on its outcome and not on the process by which the decision was reached. In other words, the quality of a decision is only determined once the outcome is known. Outcome bias occurs when a decision is based on the outcome of previous events without regard for how those events developed.
Hindsight bias is the tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were. The result of a presidential election, for example, seems more obvious when the winner is announced. The same can also be said for the avid sports fan who predicted the correct outcome of a match regardless of whether their team won or lost. Hindsight bias, therefore, is the tendency for an individual to convince themselves that they accurately predicted an event before it happened.
Gennaro is the creator of FourWeekMBA, which reached about four million business people, comprising C-level executives, investors, analysts, product managers, and aspiring digital entrepreneurs in 2022 alone | He is also Director of Sales for a high-tech scaleup in the AI Industry | In 2012, Gennaro earned an International MBA with emphasis on Corporate Finance and Business Strategy.
