cognitive-load-theory

What Is Cognitive Load Theory? Cognitive Load Theory In A Nutshell

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Cognitive load theory (CLT) argues that instructional design quality is increased when consideration is given to the role and limitations of working memory. The theory is based on the premise that since the brain can only do so many things at once, the individual should be selective about what they ask it to process.

AspectExplanation
DefinitionCognitive Load Theory (CLT) is an educational and psychological theory that explores how the human cognitive system processes information and manages mental effort during learning. It focuses on the concept of cognitive load, which refers to the mental load or effort required for information processing. CLT aims to optimize learning by managing cognitive load through effective instructional design and presentation.
Key Concepts– Cognitive Load: The mental effort or load imposed on the learner’s cognitive system while processing information. – Intrinsic Load: The inherent complexity of the material being learned. – Extraneous Load: The unnecessary or distracting cognitive load introduced by poor instructional design. – Germane Load: The cognitive load associated with meaningful learning and problem-solving. – Working Memory: The limited capacity memory system responsible for processing information.
Characteristics– Load Management: CLT emphasizes managing cognitive load to facilitate learning. – Reduction of Extraneous Load: Efforts are made to minimize extraneous cognitive load. – Effective Instruction: Designing instruction that optimizes learning by considering cognitive load. – Multimodal Learning: Using various instructional methods to reduce cognitive load. – Expertise Reversal Effect: The effectiveness of instructional methods varies with learners’ expertise levels.
Implications– Optimized Learning: CLT helps design instruction that maximizes learning outcomes. – Efficient Use of Working Memory: It aids in efficient use of limited working memory resources. – Reduced Cognitive Overload: By minimizing extraneous load, learners are less likely to experience cognitive overload. – Retention and Transfer: CLT can improve long-term retention and the ability to apply knowledge to new contexts. – Adaptive Learning: Tailoring instruction to match learners’ cognitive capabilities.
Advantages– Enhanced Learning: CLT leads to more effective and efficient learning. – Clear Instructional Design: Helps create clear and well-structured learning materials. – Reduced Cognitive Overload: Minimizing cognitive overload improves comprehension. – Tailored Instruction: Instruction can be adapted to suit learners’ cognitive capacities. – Improved Retention: Optimized learning often leads to better retention of knowledge.
Drawbacks– Complexity: Implementing CLT principles may require a deep understanding of cognitive psychology. – Resource Intensive: Developing CLT-compliant materials can be resource-intensive. – Not One-Size-Fits-All: CLT acknowledges that optimal instructional design may vary between individuals and contexts. – Lack of Awareness: Instructors and designers may not be fully aware of CLT principles. – Overemphasis on Efficiency: Some argue that CLT may focus too heavily on efficiency at the expense of creativity or critical thinking.
Applications– Education: CLT is commonly applied in educational settings to design effective learning materials. – Training: Used in corporate training to enhance employee learning and skill acquisition. – E-Learning: Applied in the development of online courses and digital learning platforms. – Software Design: Designing user interfaces and software with reduced cognitive load. – Healthcare Education: Designing medical training programs for healthcare professionals.
Use Cases– Language Learning: Designing language courses with optimal load management. – Mathematics Education: Creating math lessons that minimize cognitive load. – Technical Training: Developing training programs for complex technical skills. – User Interface Design: Creating user-friendly interfaces for software applications. – Medical Simulation: Developing medical simulations for training healthcare professionals.
Future Trends– Personalized Learning: Using data and technology to tailor instruction to individual learners’ cognitive capacities. – AI in Education: Integrating artificial intelligence to adapt instruction based on cognitive load assessments. – Virtual Reality: Exploring the use of VR for immersive, low-load learning experiences. – Neuroeducation: Advancements in neuroscience may provide new insights into cognitive load management. – Cross-Disciplinary Research: Collaboration between cognitive psychologists, educators, and technologists to refine CLT applications.

Understanding cognitive load theory

Cognitive load theory was developed in the late 1980s by psychologist John Sweller, who argued that instructional design could be used to reduce cognitive load in students. 

The theory is based on two commonly accepted ideas:

  • There is a limit to how much new information the brain can process at any given time. This is called working memory, which can only store a few pieces of information for a very short duration.
  • There are no limits to how much stored information the brain can process at any given time. Stored information is accessed from long-term memory where it may be held semi-permanently.

If the working memory of a student is overloaded, there is a risk they will not understand the content being taught to them. With regular practice, however, learning can be facilitated as information is recalled from long-term memory with little conscious effort. Since this knowledge is accessed subconsciously, the working memory is freed up to learn something else.

Ultimately, the goal of cognitive load theory is to develop models of instruction that support the way the human brain learns.

The three types of cognitive load

The theory defines three types of cognitive load, which refers to the number of resources used in working memory.

Following is a look at each type:

  1. Intrinsic load – or the complexity of the material or skill, measured by the number of the elements that need to be learned. When there are a large number of interacting elements, a novice learner experiences a high intrinsic load. As a result, the intrinsic load is dependent on the complexity of the learning material and the learner’s prior level of knowledge or understanding. 
  2. Germane load – this refers to the load placed on working memory by the process of learning. In other words, the transferring of information to long-term memory where it becomes knowledge. This process is facilitated by schemas, or frameworks organizing elements of information according to how they should be used. For example, a mathematics student will use the BODMAS mnemonic to help them remember the correct order for completing calculations. Crucially, schemas reduce working memory load because they are single elements of information representing complex or multi-faceted knowledge.
  3. Extraneous load – caused by cognitive activities that do not contribute to learning. In most cases, the information presented is poorly designed and may be confusing, unnecessary, or excessive. The teacher may also instruct in a way that is similarly complex.

Five principles for reducing cognitive load

In 2002, educational psychologist Richard E. Mayer built on Sweller’s research to create five principles for reducing cognitive load:

  • The Coherence Principle – reduce the amount of information to only what is critical and relevant to learning. Simplicity and clarity should be favored over style and applies to teaching materials and the disseminating of instructions.
  • The Signalling Principle – important written information should be highlighted in whatever way the teacher deems appropriate. Teachers should alter their pacing and intonation when teaching verbally and should avoid speaking in a monotone voice.
  • The Redundancy Principle – teachers should never become so lazy that they instruct by reading information from a screen.
  • Spatial Contiguity – to reduce cognitive load, it is also important to show related topics or items close to each other. If a diagram is included in the course content, the annotations should be included on the same page.
  • Temporal Contiguity – similar to the fourth principle, but with time instead of proximity. Related concepts or items must be mentioned in quick succession. Hours or days should not elapse before a link is made between two related concepts. Spatial and temporal learning can be facilitated by using context, which links the information to a relatable student situation and reduces germane cognitive load.

Examples And Case Studies

  • Presentation Slides: When creating presentation slides, following the coherence and signaling principles can reduce cognitive load. Limit the amount of text on each slide to critical and relevant information, use clear and concise language, and highlight key points or important information using different colors or formatting.
  • Classroom Teaching: In a classroom setting, teachers can apply the redundancy principle by avoiding repeating the same information using different words. Instead, they should provide concise explanations and examples to avoid overloading students’ working memory with redundant information.
  • Online Learning: In online learning environments, teachers and course designers can use spatial contiguity to present related topics or items close to each other on the screen. For example, when explaining a concept, the text, diagrams, and relevant visuals should be displayed together, reducing the need for students to mentally integrate disparate information.
  • Problem-Solving Exercises: In math or science classes, teachers can apply the temporal contiguity principle by presenting related problem-solving steps in quick succession. This approach helps students link concepts in real-time and reduces cognitive load during the problem-solving process.
  • Multimedia Learning: When using multimedia, such as videos or animations, in educational materials, applying the coherence and signaling principles is crucial. Teachers should present information in a clear and structured manner, avoid unnecessary distractions or decorative elements, and use cues to highlight important information.
  • Foreign Language Learning: In language learning, teachers can reduce cognitive load by introducing new vocabulary in context and using real-life examples. By linking new words or phrases to familiar situations or experiences, learners can form relevant associations, making it easier to remember and apply the language.
  • Software User Interfaces: When designing software user interfaces, developers should follow the coherence and spatial contiguity principles. Information and controls related to specific tasks should be logically grouped together, and unnecessary or distracting elements should be minimized to avoid overwhelming users’ working memory.

Key takeaways:

  • Cognitive load theory is a theory of instructional design based on the role and limitations of working memory on learning.
  • Cognitive load theory describes three forms of cognitive load which consumes limited resources in working memory. These include intrinsic load, germane load, and extraneous load.
  • Five principles for reducing cognitive load were later added to the theory in 2002 by Richard E. Mayer. Among other things, teachers must favor a simple and clear instructional style and avoid reading off a screen.

Key Highlights

  • Definition of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT): Cognitive Load Theory is a framework in instructional design that emphasizes considering the role and limitations of working memory when designing learning materials. The theory suggests that learning is more effective when the cognitive load imposed on working memory is managed effectively.
  • Origin and Development: Cognitive Load Theory was formulated by psychologist John Sweller in the late 1980s. It aims to optimize the learning process by understanding how the brain processes information and how to reduce cognitive overload.
  • Working Memory Limitations: Working memory has limited capacity and can only hold a small amount of new information for a short period. However, there is no limit to how much stored information can be processed.
  • Intrinsic Load: Intrinsic load refers to the inherent complexity of the material or skill being learned. It is influenced by the number of interacting elements in the learning content and the learner’s prior knowledge.
  • Germane Load: Germane load pertains to the cognitive effort required to transfer information from working memory to long-term memory. Schemas, which are mental frameworks organizing information, play a crucial role in reducing this load by simplifying complex information.
  • Extraneous Load: Extraneous load is the cognitive load imposed by irrelevant or poorly designed information. It occurs when instructional materials are confusing, excessive, or unnecessary, hindering effective learning.
  • Five Principles for Reducing Cognitive Load (Richard E. Mayer, 2002):
    • Coherence Principle: Present only essential information to avoid overwhelming learners. Prioritize simplicity and clarity over style.
    • Signalling Principle: Use cues and highlighting to emphasize important information. Vary pacing and intonation in verbal instruction to enhance engagement.
    • Redundancy Principle: Avoid redundant information that can overload working memory.
    • Spatial Contiguity: Present related content close to each other, such as text and diagrams, to reduce cognitive load.
    • Temporal Contiguity: Introduce related concepts in quick succession to facilitate memory integration.
  • Applications and Examples:
    • Presentation Slides: Applying coherence and signaling principles to presentation slides reduces cognitive load by highlighting key information.
    • Classroom Teaching: Teachers should provide concise explanations and avoid redundant information to prevent cognitive overload.
    • Online Learning: Designers can apply spatial contiguity to organize related content on online platforms.
    • Problem-Solving Exercises: Present related problem-solving steps in quick succession to enhance memory integration.
    • Multimedia Learning: Clear and structured multimedia presentations follow the coherence and signaling principles.
    • Foreign Language Learning: Introducing vocabulary in context reduces cognitive load by creating relevant associations.
    • Software User Interfaces: Designing interfaces with coherence and spatial contiguity minimizes cognitive load for users.
  • Key Takeaways:
    • Cognitive Load Theory focuses on optimizing learning by managing cognitive load in instructional design.
    • It addresses intrinsic, germane, and extraneous cognitive load.
    • Five principles for reducing cognitive load were introduced by Richard E. Mayer to guide effective instructional design.
    • Applying these principles enhances learning experiences across various contexts.

Read Next: Biases, Bounded Rationality, Mandela Effect, Dunning-Kruger

Read Next: Heuristics, Biases.

Connected Thinking Frameworks

Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking

convergent-vs-divergent-thinking
Convergent thinking occurs when the solution to a problem can be found by applying established rules and logical reasoning. Whereas divergent thinking is an unstructured problem-solving method where participants are encouraged to develop many innovative ideas or solutions to a given problem. Where convergent thinking might work for larger, mature organizations where divergent thinking is more suited for startups and innovative companies.

Critical Thinking

critical-thinking
Critical thinking involves analyzing observations, facts, evidence, and arguments to form a judgment about what someone reads, hears, says, or writes.

Biases

biases
The concept of cognitive biases was introduced and popularized by the work of Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972. Biases are seen as systematic errors and flaws that make humans deviate from the standards of rationality, thus making us inept at making good decisions under uncertainty.

Second-Order Thinking

second-order-thinking
Second-order thinking is a means of assessing the implications of our decisions by considering future consequences. Second-order thinking is a mental model that considers all future possibilities. It encourages individuals to think outside of the box so that they can prepare for every and eventuality. It also discourages the tendency for individuals to default to the most obvious choice.

Lateral Thinking

lateral-thinking
Lateral thinking is a business strategy that involves approaching a problem from a different direction. The strategy attempts to remove traditionally formulaic and routine approaches to problem-solving by advocating creative thinking, therefore finding unconventional ways to solve a known problem. This sort of non-linear approach to problem-solving, can at times, create a big impact.

Bounded Rationality

bounded-rationality
Bounded rationality is a concept attributed to Herbert Simon, an economist and political scientist interested in decision-making and how we make decisions in the real world. In fact, he believed that rather than optimizing (which was the mainstream view in the past decades) humans follow what he called satisficing.

Dunning-Kruger Effect

dunning-kruger-effect
The Dunning-Kruger effect describes a cognitive bias where people with low ability in a task overestimate their ability to perform that task well. Consumers or businesses that do not possess the requisite knowledge make bad decisions. What’s more, knowledge gaps prevent the person or business from seeing their mistakes.

Occam’s Razor

occams-razor
Occam’s Razor states that one should not increase (beyond reason) the number of entities required to explain anything. All things being equal, the simplest solution is often the best one. The principle is attributed to 14th-century English theologian William of Ockham.

Lindy Effect

lindy-effect
The Lindy Effect is a theory about the ageing of non-perishable things, like technology or ideas. Popularized by author Nicholas Nassim Taleb, the Lindy Effect states that non-perishable things like technology age – linearly – in reverse. Therefore, the older an idea or a technology, the same will be its life expectancy.

Antifragility

antifragility
Antifragility was first coined as a term by author, and options trader Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Antifragility is a characteristic of systems that thrive as a result of stressors, volatility, and randomness. Therefore, Antifragile is the opposite of fragile. Where a fragile thing breaks up to volatility; a robust thing resists volatility. An antifragile thing gets stronger from volatility (provided the level of stressors and randomness doesn’t pass a certain threshold).

Ergodicity

ergodicity
Ergodicity is one of the most important concepts in statistics. Ergodicity is a mathematical concept suggesting that a point of a moving system will eventually visit all parts of the space the system moves in. On the opposite side, non-ergodic means that a system doesn’t visit all the possible parts, as there are absorbing barriers

Systems Thinking

systems-thinking
Systems thinking is a holistic means of investigating the factors and interactions that could contribute to a potential outcome. It is about thinking non-linearly, and understanding the second-order consequences of actions and input into the system.

Vertical Thinking

vertical-thinking
Vertical thinking, on the other hand, is a problem-solving approach that favors a selective, analytical, structured, and sequential mindset. The focus of vertical thinking is to arrive at a reasoned, defined solution.

Metaphorical Thinking

metaphorical-thinking
Metaphorical thinking describes a mental process in which comparisons are made between qualities of objects usually considered to be separate classifications.  Metaphorical thinking is a mental process connecting two different universes of meaning and is the result of the mind looking for similarities.

Maslow’s Hammer

einstellung-effect
Maslow’s Hammer, otherwise known as the law of the instrument or the Einstellung effect, is a cognitive bias causing an over-reliance on a familiar tool. This can be expressed as the tendency to overuse a known tool (perhaps a hammer) to solve issues that might require a different tool. This problem is persistent in the business world where perhaps known tools or frameworks might be used in the wrong context (like business plans used as planning tools instead of only investors’ pitches).

Peter Principle

peter-principle
The Peter Principle was first described by Canadian sociologist Lawrence J. Peter in his 1969 book The Peter Principle. The Peter Principle states that people are continually promoted within an organization until they reach their level of incompetence.

Straw Man Fallacy

straw-man-fallacy
The straw man fallacy describes an argument that misrepresents an opponent’s stance to make rebuttal more convenient. The straw man fallacy is a type of informal logical fallacy, defined as a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders it invalid.

Google Effect

google-effect
The Google effect is a tendency for individuals to forget information that is readily available through search engines. During the Google effect – sometimes called digital amnesia – individuals have an excessive reliance on digital information as a form of memory recall.

Streisand Effect

streisand-effect
The Streisand Effect is a paradoxical phenomenon where the act of suppressing information to reduce visibility causes it to become more visible. In 2003, Streisand attempted to suppress aerial photographs of her Californian home by suing photographer Kenneth Adelman for an invasion of privacy. Adelman, who Streisand assumed was paparazzi, was instead taking photographs to document and study coastal erosion. In her quest for more privacy, Streisand’s efforts had the opposite effect.

Compromise Effect

compromise-effect
Single-attribute choices – such as choosing the apartment with the lowest rent – are relatively simple. However, most of the decisions consumers make are based on multiple attributes which complicate the decision-making process. The compromise effect states that a consumer is more likely to choose the middle option of a set of products over more extreme options.

Butterfly Effect

butterfly-effect
In business, the butterfly effect describes the phenomenon where the simplest actions yield the largest rewards. The butterfly effect was coined by meteorologist Edward Lorenz in 1960 and as a result, it is most often associated with weather in pop culture. Lorenz noted that the small action of a butterfly fluttering its wings had the potential to cause progressively larger actions resulting in a typhoon.

IKEA Effect

ikea-effect
The IKEA effect is a cognitive bias that describes consumers’ tendency to value something more if they have made it themselves. That is why brands often use the IKEA effect to have customizations for final products, as they help the consumer relate to it more and therefore appending to it more value.

Ringelmann Effect 

Ringelmann Effect
The Ringelmann effect describes the tendency for individuals within a group to become less productive as the group size increases.

The Overview Effect

overview-effect
The overview effect is a cognitive shift reported by some astronauts when they look back at the Earth from space. The shift occurs because of the impressive visual spectacle of the Earth and tends to be characterized by a state of awe and increased self-transcendence.

House Money Effect

house-money-effect
The house money effect was first described by researchers Richard Thaler and Eric Johnson in a 1990 study entitled Gambling with the House Money and Trying to Break Even: The Effects of Prior Outcomes on Risky Choice. The house money effect is a cognitive bias where investors take higher risks on reinvested capital than they would on an initial investment.

Heuristic

heuristic
As highlighted by German psychologist Gerd Gigerenzer in the paper “Heuristic Decision Making,” the term heuristic is of Greek origin, meaning “serving to find out or discover.” More precisely, a heuristic is a fast and accurate way to make decisions in the real world, which is driven by uncertainty.

Recognition Heuristic

recognition-heuristic
The recognition heuristic is a psychological model of judgment and decision making. It is part of a suite of simple and economical heuristics proposed by psychologists Daniel Goldstein and Gerd Gigerenzer. The recognition heuristic argues that inferences are made about an object based on whether it is recognized or not.

Representativeness Heuristic

representativeness-heuristic
The representativeness heuristic was first described by psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky. The representativeness heuristic judges the probability of an event according to the degree to which that event resembles a broader class. When queried, most will choose the first option because the description of John matches the stereotype we may hold for an archaeologist.

Take-The-Best Heuristic

take-the-best-heuristic
The take-the-best heuristic is a decision-making shortcut that helps an individual choose between several alternatives. The take-the-best (TTB) heuristic decides between two or more alternatives based on a single good attribute, otherwise known as a cue. In the process, less desirable attributes are ignored.

Bundling Bias

bundling-bias
The bundling bias is a cognitive bias in e-commerce where a consumer tends not to use all of the products bought as a group, or bundle. Bundling occurs when individual products or services are sold together as a bundle. Common examples are tickets and experiences. The bundling bias dictates that consumers are less likely to use each item in the bundle. This means that the value of the bundle and indeed the value of each item in the bundle is decreased.

Barnum Effect

barnum-effect
The Barnum Effect is a cognitive bias where individuals believe that generic information – which applies to most people – is specifically tailored for themselves.

Anchoring Effect

anchoring-effect
The anchoring effect describes the human tendency to rely on an initial piece of information (the “anchor”) to make subsequent judgments or decisions. Price anchoring, then, is the process of establishing a price point that customers can reference when making a buying decision.

Decoy Effect

decoy-effect
The decoy effect is a psychological phenomenon where inferior – or decoy – options influence consumer preferences. Businesses use the decoy effect to nudge potential customers toward the desired target product. The decoy effect is staged by placing a competitor product and a decoy product, which is primarily used to nudge the customer toward the target product.

Commitment Bias

commitment-bias
Commitment bias describes the tendency of an individual to remain committed to past behaviors – even if they result in undesirable outcomes. The bias is particularly pronounced when such behaviors are performed publicly. Commitment bias is also known as escalation of commitment.

First-Principles Thinking

first-principles-thinking
First-principles thinking – sometimes called reasoning from first principles – is used to reverse-engineer complex problems and encourage creativity. It involves breaking down problems into basic elements and reassembling them from the ground up. Elon Musk is among the strongest proponents of this way of thinking.

Ladder Of Inference

ladder-of-inference
The ladder of inference is a conscious or subconscious thinking process where an individual moves from a fact to a decision or action. The ladder of inference was created by academic Chris Argyris to illustrate how people form and then use mental models to make decisions.

Goodhart’s Law

goodharts-law
Goodhart’s Law is named after British monetary policy theorist and economist Charles Goodhart. Speaking at a conference in Sydney in 1975, Goodhart said that “any observed statistical regularity will tend to collapse once pressure is placed upon it for control purposes.” Goodhart’s Law states that when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure.

Six Thinking Hats Model

six-thinking-hats-model
The Six Thinking Hats model was created by psychologist Edward de Bono in 1986, who noted that personality type was a key driver of how people approached problem-solving. For example, optimists view situations differently from pessimists. Analytical individuals may generate ideas that a more emotional person would not, and vice versa.

Mandela Effect

mandela-effect
The Mandela effect is a phenomenon where a large group of people remembers an event differently from how it occurred. The Mandela effect was first described in relation to Fiona Broome, who believed that former South African President Nelson Mandela died in prison during the 1980s. While Mandela was released from prison in 1990 and died 23 years later, Broome remembered news coverage of his death in prison and even a speech from his widow. Of course, neither event occurred in reality. But Broome was later to discover that she was not the only one with the same recollection of events.

Crowding-Out Effect

crowding-out-effect
The crowding-out effect occurs when public sector spending reduces spending in the private sector.

Bandwagon Effect

bandwagon-effect
The bandwagon effect tells us that the more a belief or idea has been adopted by more people within a group, the more the individual adoption of that idea might increase within the same group. This is the psychological effect that leads to herd mentality. What in marketing can be associated with social proof.

Moore’s Law

moores-law
Moore’s law states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years. This observation was made by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in 1965 and it become a guiding principle for the semiconductor industry and has had far-reaching implications for technology as a whole.

Disruptive Innovation

disruptive-innovation
Disruptive innovation as a term was first described by Clayton M. Christensen, an American academic and business consultant whom The Economist called “the most influential management thinker of his time.” Disruptive innovation describes the process by which a product or service takes hold at the bottom of a market and eventually displaces established competitors, products, firms, or alliances.

Value Migration

value-migration
Value migration was first described by author Adrian Slywotzky in his 1996 book Value Migration – How to Think Several Moves Ahead of the Competition. Value migration is the transferal of value-creating forces from outdated business models to something better able to satisfy consumer demands.

Bye-Now Effect

bye-now-effect
The bye-now effect describes the tendency for consumers to think of the word “buy” when they read the word “bye”. In a study that tracked diners at a name-your-own-price restaurant, each diner was asked to read one of two phrases before ordering their meal. The first phrase, “so long”, resulted in diners paying an average of $32 per meal. But when diners recited the phrase “bye bye” before ordering, the average price per meal rose to $45.

Groupthink

groupthink
Groupthink occurs when well-intentioned individuals make non-optimal or irrational decisions based on a belief that dissent is impossible or on a motivation to conform. Groupthink occurs when members of a group reach a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the alternatives and their consequences.

Stereotyping

stereotyping
A stereotype is a fixed and over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people. These beliefs are based on the false assumption that certain characteristics are common to every individual residing in that group. Many stereotypes have a long and sometimes controversial history and are a direct consequence of various political, social, or economic events. Stereotyping is the process of making assumptions about a person or group of people based on various attributes, including gender, race, religion, or physical traits.

Murphy’s Law

murphys-law
Murphy’s Law states that if anything can go wrong, it will go wrong. Murphy’s Law was named after aerospace engineer Edward A. Murphy. During his time working at Edwards Air Force Base in 1949, Murphy cursed a technician who had improperly wired an electrical component and said, “If there is any way to do it wrong, he’ll find it.”

Law of Unintended Consequences

law-of-unintended-consequences
The law of unintended consequences was first mentioned by British philosopher John Locke when writing to parliament about the unintended effects of interest rate rises. However, it was popularized in 1936 by American sociologist Robert K. Merton who looked at unexpected, unanticipated, and unintended consequences and their impact on society.

Fundamental Attribution Error

fundamental-attribution-error
Fundamental attribution error is a bias people display when judging the behavior of others. The tendency is to over-emphasize personal characteristics and under-emphasize environmental and situational factors.

Outcome Bias

outcome-bias
Outcome bias describes a tendency to evaluate a decision based on its outcome and not on the process by which the decision was reached. In other words, the quality of a decision is only determined once the outcome is known. Outcome bias occurs when a decision is based on the outcome of previous events without regard for how those events developed.

Hindsight Bias

hindsight-bias
Hindsight bias is the tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were. The result of a presidential election, for example, seems more obvious when the winner is announced. The same can also be said for the avid sports fan who predicted the correct outcome of a match regardless of whether their team won or lost. Hindsight bias, therefore, is the tendency for an individual to convince themselves that they accurately predicted an event before it happened.

Read Next: Biases, Bounded Rationality, Mandela Effect, Dunning-Kruger Effect, Lindy Effect, Crowding Out Effect, Bandwagon Effect.

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