Occam’s broom was first proposed by South African microbiologist Sidney Brenner who proposed that inconvenient facts that do not fit into someone’s hypothesis or serve their agenda are swept aside or hidden. Occam’s broom is a principle stating that inconvenient facts are hidden or obscured to draw important conclusions or argue points.
Aspect
Explanation
Concept Overview
– Occam’s Broom is a term used informally to describe a situation in which evidence or data that contradicts a widely accepted scientific theory or hypothesis is dismissed, ignored, or “swept under the rug” rather than being properly considered or investigated. It is often associated with cases where scientists or researchers may unconsciously or deliberately ignore data that challenges their existing beliefs or theories. The term plays on the idea of Occam’s Razor, a principle that suggests simpler explanations are generally preferred over more complex ones. Occam’s Broom, in contrast, represents the act of hastily or selectively cleaning up data to maintain the status quo.
Key Principles
– Occam’s Broom highlights the importance of scientific integrity, objectivity, and open-mindedness in the pursuit of knowledge. It serves as a cautionary concept, reminding researchers to be vigilant in examining all available evidence, even when it challenges prevailing theories. Additionally, it underscores the role of skepticism in the scientific method, encouraging scientists to question their own assumptions and biases.
Examples
– Occam’s Broom may be observed in various scientific disciplines when scientists encounter data that contradicts established theories. They might explain away or dismiss such data rather than conducting further investigation or considering alternative explanations. This can hinder scientific progress and lead to the perpetuation of incorrect or incomplete theories.
Implications
– Occam’s Broom highlights the potential dangers of confirmation bias, where individuals tend to seek out and favor information that confirms their existing beliefs while disregarding contradictory evidence. It underscores the importance of a rigorous and open scientific process that welcomes scrutiny and actively seeks to challenge and refine existing theories.
Mitigation
– To mitigate the effects of Occam’s Broom, scientists and researchers should cultivate a culture of openness to alternative hypotheses and actively seek to test and reevaluate existing theories in light of new evidence. Peer review, replication studies, and interdisciplinary collaboration can help in critically examining and validating scientific findings.
Relevance
– Occam’s Broom is relevant in discussions about scientific methodology, critical thinking, and the philosophy of science. It serves as a reminder of the need for intellectual honesty, skepticism, and transparency in scientific research. While it may not be a formal framework, it emphasizes the principles that underlie the scientific method.
Brenner’s idea was supported by author Daniel Dennett in his 2013 book Intuition Pumps and Other Tools for Thinking.
Dennett noted that the practice was common among intellectual but dishonest advocates of one theory or another and was especially insidious when directed toward a general public who may not know to tell fact from fiction.
In addition, Dennett said that:
“conspiracy theorists are masters of Occam’s Broom, and an instructive exercise on the Internet is to look up a new conspiracy theory, to see if you (a nonexpert on the topic) can find the flaws, before looking elsewhere on the web for the expert rebuttals.”
Occam’s broom in the context of science
While Dennett linked the idea with conspiracy theorists, it should be noted that as a scientist, Brenner coined the term to describe the tendency of his peers to overlook data not in support of their arguments.
In a 2009 article in the Journal of Biology, Miranda Robertson noted that despite its negative connotations, Occam’s broom did have a place in science and was in fact necessary for scientific progress.
Robertson noted that ”Biology, as many have pointed out, is untidy and accidental, and it is arguably unlikely that all the facts can be accounted for early in the investigation of any given biological phenomenon.”
She then went on to discuss Occam’s broom in the context of Charles Darwin’s discovery of natural selection and Mendel’s discovery of the fundamental laws of inheritance.
If Darwin had “swept away” variation in the ratios of inheritance he recorded (as Mendel did), then many believe Darwin would have discovered the laws of inheritance before his counterpart.
When and Where Occam’s Broom Occurs:
Occam’s Broom can occur in various contexts:
Scientific Research: Researchers may ignore data that contradicts their hypotheses, hindering the advancement of scientific knowledge.
Politics: Politicians and their supporters may engage in Occam’s Broom by dismissing or distorting facts to maintain a particular narrative or ideology.
Personal Beliefs: Individuals may use Occam’s Broom to protect deeply held personal beliefs, even when confronted with contradictory evidence.
Business Decision-Making: Business leaders might ignore data that challenges their strategies or decisions to avoid admitting mistakes.
Implications of Occam’s Broom:
The implications of Occam’s Broom can be significant:
Stagnation: In scientific research, it can lead to stagnation, as researchers ignore evidence that could challenge existing theories and lead to new discoveries.
Misinformation: In politics and media, Occam’s Broom can contribute to the spread of misinformation and polarization.
Ineffective Decision-Making: In business and personal life, it can result in ineffective decision-making and missed opportunities for growth or improvement.
How to Recognize and Counteract Occam’s Broom:
Recognizing and counteracting Occam’s Broom requires a commitment to rational inquiry and open-mindedness:
Self-Reflection: Be aware of your own biases and actively seek out and consider contradictory evidence.
Critical Thinking: Develop critical thinking skills to evaluate information objectively and question assumptions.
Diverse Perspectives: Seek out diverse perspectives and engage in constructive discussions with those who hold different views.
Fact-Checking: Verify information from multiple credible sources to avoid falling victim to misinformation.
Peer Review: In scientific research, embrace peer review and collaboration to ensure the integrity of your work.
Other examples of Occam’s broom
Negative economic outlooks could also be considered an example of Occam’s broom.
When the media report on a company’s debt or impending bankruptcy, they only focus on the liabilities of the balance sheet and not its assets.
In a similar vein, those who want to make predictions about a country’s debt obligations should not neglect its earning power, collective knowledge, innovation capacity, and capital base.
Occam’s broom is a principle stating that inconvenient facts are “swept under the carpet” to draw important conclusions or make counterarguments.
Occam’s broom is common among intellectual but dishonest advocates of one theory or another. Some may push conspiracy theories, while academics such as scientists may also discount facts that do not support their hypotheses.
Negative economic outlooks could also be considered an example of Occam’s broom. When media organizations make doom forecasts about a country’s economy, they may avoid considering its asset base and potential for growth and innovation.
Occam’s Broom vs. Occam’s Razor
Occam’s Razor states that one should not increase (beyond reason) the number of entities required to explain anything. All things being equal, the simplest solution is often the best one. The principle is attributed to 14th-century English theologian William of Ockham.
Whereas Occam’s Razor is a heuristic that helps decide in a complex scenario by going for the most straightforward solution as the best one.
Occam’s Broom is more of a bias, in which intellectuals fall as a confirmation bias, where these people tend to select facts that fit into their narratives.
Thus, reinforcing their hypotheses. This is a negative feedback loop mechanism, where someone selects and cherry-picks the facts that most fit into the outcome she/he has in mind.
Key Highlights
Introduction to Occam’s Broom: Occam’s Broom is a concept where inconvenient facts or data are ignored, hidden, or obscured in order to draw specific conclusions, argue points, or make counterarguments.
Origin and Connection with Conspiracy Theories: Occam’s Broom was described by author Daniel Dennett in his book as a practice common among dishonest proponents of theories, particularly conspiracy theorists. This tactic can mislead the general public who may struggle to differentiate fact from fiction.
Scientific Context and Positive Aspects: Occam’s Broom was coined by scientist Sydney Brenner to point out how researchers sometimes overlook data that contradicts their arguments. While it has negative connotations, it’s essential for scientific progress when theories and explanations are refined over time.
Examples in Science: Occam’s Broom can be observed in scientific history, such as how Charles Darwin’s and Mendel’s approaches to handling data affected their discoveries. Darwin’s failure to consider certain data led him to miss the fundamental laws of inheritance, unlike Mendel.
Economic Outlook and Facts Neglection: In economic contexts, Occam’s Broom can manifest as media focusing solely on a company’s debts or bankruptcy without considering its assets. Similarly, economic predictions that neglect factors like a country’s earning power and innovation capacity can lead to biased conclusions.
Key Takeaways:
Occam’s Broom is a concept where inconvenient facts are disregarded to support certain conclusions.
It’s linked to confirmation bias and can be observed in conspiracy theories, scientific research, and economic forecasts.
While related to Occam’s Razor, which seeks simplicity in explanations, Occam’s Broom is more about ignoring contrary evidence to reinforce a particular narrative.
Alternative Thinking Frameworks
Concept
Description
Key Features
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to interpret, favor, or recall information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while ignoring or discounting evidence that contradicts them.
– Influences perception, cognition, and decision-making by favoring information that aligns with existing beliefs or expectations. – May lead to selective exposure, attention, and interpretation of information, reinforcing existing beliefs and inhibiting critical thinking.
Cognitive Dissonance
The psychological discomfort or tension experienced when holding conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values, leading individuals to rationalize, ignore, or reject information that contradicts their existing beliefs or self-perception.
– Occurs when individuals encounter information that conflicts with their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. – Motivates efforts to restore consistency and reduce discomfort through selective exposure, reinterpretation, or dismissal of conflicting information.
Motivated Reasoning
The process of selectively processing information and arguments in a way that aligns with one’s preexisting beliefs, preferences, or goals, while discounting or dismissing evidence that contradicts them, driven by underlying motivations, emotions, or biases.
– Influences decision-making and judgment by shaping how individuals interpret and evaluate information. – May lead to biased processing of information, reinforcing existing beliefs or narratives and inhibiting open-mindedness or critical evaluation of evidence.
Belief Perseverance
The tendency to cling to one’s initial beliefs or opinions, even in the face of contradictory evidence or persuasive arguments, maintaining confidence in one’s beliefs despite challenges or disconfirming information.
– Sustains belief systems and attitudes in the absence of compelling evidence or rationale. – Inhibits updating or revising beliefs in response to new information or contradictory evidence, leading to persistence in erroneous beliefs or misperceptions.
Selective Exposure
The tendency to seek out or be exposed to information, media, or experiences that align with one’s preexisting beliefs, attitudes, or preferences, while avoiding or ignoring information that contradicts or challenges them, leading to confirmation bias and polarization.
– Shapes information consumption and media choices based on preexisting beliefs or preferences. – Reinforces existing attitudes and beliefs by limiting exposure to dissenting or contradictory viewpoints, contributing to polarization and echo chambers in society and media consumption.
Escalation of Commitment
The phenomenon whereby individuals or groups continue to invest time, resources, or effort into a failing course of action or decision, despite evidence suggesting that it is unlikely to succeed, often due to cognitive biases, emotional attachment, or sunk costs.
– Reflects a reluctance to abandon or change a course of action, even when it becomes increasingly untenable or costly. – Driven by factors such as cognitive dissonance, sunk cost fallacy, and the desire to justify past decisions or commitments, leading to irrational persistence.
Backfire Effect
The phenomenon in which individuals react to disconfirming evidence or arguments by becoming more entrenched in their existing beliefs or attitudes, rather than revising or updating them in response to new information, leading to reinforcement of mistaken beliefs or misconceptions.
– Occurs when individuals reject or resist information that challenges their existing beliefs, leading to intensified conviction. – May result from motivated reasoning, cognitive dissonance, or identity protection, reinforcing the original belief despite contradictory evidence.
Illusory Truth Effect
The tendency to believe information or statements as true after repeated exposure, regardless of their actual validity or evidence supporting them, due to the familiarity and fluency associated with repeated presentation, leading to the acceptance of misinformation or falsehoods.
– Reflects the influence of repetition and familiarity on belief formation and acceptance. – Highlights the role of cognitive heuristics and processing fluency in shaping perceptions of truth or credibility, regardless of evidence or rational evaluation.
Anchoring Bias
The cognitive bias that occurs when individuals rely too heavily on initial information or the first piece of information encountered (the “anchor”) when making decisions or judgments, leading to insufficient adjustment or correction for subsequent information or evidence.
– Influences decision-making by anchoring perceptions or judgments to initial information or reference points. – May lead to underestimation or overestimation of values or probabilities, inhibiting objective evaluation or adjustment in response to new information.
Straw Man Argument
A rhetorical technique or fallacy that involves misrepresenting or distorting an opponent’s position, argument, or viewpoint in order to make it easier to refute or discredit, often by oversimplifying, exaggerating, or attributing extreme or false positions to the opponent.
– Involves the creation of a weakened or distorted version of an opposing argument or position. – Enables individuals to attack or dismiss the misrepresented argument more easily, diverting attention from the actual merits or complexities of the opponent’s position.
Convergent thinking occurs when the solution to a problem can be found by applying established rules and logical reasoning. Whereas divergent thinking is an unstructured problem-solving method where participants are encouraged to develop many innovative ideas or solutions to a given problem. Where convergent thinking might work for larger, mature organizations where divergent thinking is more suited for startups and innovative companies.
The concept of cognitive biases was introduced and popularized by the work of Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972. Biases are seen as systematic errors and flaws that make humans deviate from the standards of rationality, thus making us inept at making good decisions under uncertainty.
Second-order thinking is a means of assessing the implications of our decisions by considering future consequences. Second-order thinking is a mental model that considers all future possibilities. It encourages individuals to think outside of the box so that they can prepare for every and eventuality. It also discourages the tendency for individuals to default to the most obvious choice.
Lateral thinking is a business strategy that involves approaching a problem from a different direction. The strategy attempts to remove traditionally formulaic and routine approaches to problem-solving by advocating creative thinking, therefore finding unconventional ways to solve a known problem. This sort of non-linear approach to problem-solving, can at times, create a big impact.
Bounded rationality is a concept attributed to Herbert Simon, an economist and political scientist interested in decision-making and how we make decisions in the real world. In fact, he believed that rather than optimizing (which was the mainstream view in the past decades) humans follow what he called satisficing.
The Dunning-Kruger effect describes a cognitive bias where people with low ability in a task overestimate their ability to perform that task well. Consumers or businesses that do not possess the requisite knowledge make bad decisions. What’s more, knowledge gaps prevent the person or business from seeing their mistakes.
Occam’s Razor states that one should not increase (beyond reason) the number of entities required to explain anything. All things being equal, the simplest solution is often the best one. The principle is attributed to 14th-century English theologian William of Ockham.
The Lindy Effect is a theory about the ageing of non-perishable things, like technology or ideas. Popularized by author Nicholas Nassim Taleb, the Lindy Effect states that non-perishable things like technology age – linearly – in reverse. Therefore, the older an idea or a technology, the same will be its life expectancy.
Antifragility was first coined as a term by author, and options trader Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Antifragility is a characteristic of systems that thrive as a result of stressors, volatility, and randomness. Therefore, Antifragile is the opposite of fragile. Where a fragile thing breaks up to volatility; a robust thing resists volatility. An antifragile thing gets stronger from volatility (provided the level of stressors and randomness doesn’t pass a certain threshold).
Ergodicity is one of the most important concepts in statistics. Ergodicity is a mathematical concept suggesting that a point of a moving system will eventually visit all parts of the space the system moves in. On the opposite side, non-ergodic means that a system doesn’t visit all the possible parts, as there are absorbing barriers
Systems thinking is a holistic means of investigating the factors and interactions that could contribute to a potential outcome. It is about thinking non-linearly, and understanding the second-order consequences of actions and input into the system.
Vertical thinking, on the other hand, is a problem-solving approach that favors a selective, analytical, structured, and sequential mindset. The focus of vertical thinking is to arrive at a reasoned, defined solution.
Metaphorical thinking describes a mental process in which comparisons are made between qualities of objects usually considered to be separate classifications. Metaphorical thinking is a mental process connecting two different universes of meaning and is the result of the mind looking for similarities.
Maslow’s Hammer, otherwise known as the law of the instrument or the Einstellung effect, is a cognitive bias causing an over-reliance on a familiar tool. This can be expressed as the tendency to overuse a known tool (perhaps a hammer) to solve issues that might require a different tool. This problem is persistent in the business world where perhaps known tools or frameworks might be used in the wrong context (like business plans used as planning tools instead of only investors’ pitches).
The Peter Principle was first described by Canadian sociologist Lawrence J. Peter in his 1969 book The Peter Principle. The Peter Principle states that people are continually promoted within an organization until they reach their level of incompetence.
The straw man fallacy describes an argument that misrepresents an opponent’s stance to make rebuttal more convenient. The straw man fallacy is a type of informal logical fallacy, defined as a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders it invalid.
The Google effect is a tendency for individuals to forget information that is readily available through search engines. During the Google effect – sometimes called digital amnesia – individuals have an excessive reliance on digital information as a form of memory recall.
The Streisand Effect is a paradoxical phenomenon where the act of suppressing information to reduce visibility causes it to become more visible. In 2003, Streisand attempted to suppress aerial photographs of her Californian home by suing photographer Kenneth Adelman for an invasion of privacy. Adelman, who Streisand assumed was paparazzi, was instead taking photographs to document and study coastal erosion. In her quest for more privacy, Streisand’s efforts had the opposite effect.
Single-attribute choices – such as choosing the apartment with the lowest rent – are relatively simple. However, most of the decisions consumers make are based on multiple attributes which complicate the decision-making process. The compromise effect states that a consumer is more likely to choose the middle option of a set of products over more extreme options.
In business, the butterfly effect describes the phenomenon where the simplest actions yield the largest rewards. The butterfly effect was coined by meteorologist Edward Lorenz in 1960 and as a result, it is most often associated with weather in pop culture. Lorenz noted that the small action of a butterfly fluttering its wings had the potential to cause progressively larger actions resulting in a typhoon.
The IKEA effect is a cognitive bias that describes consumers’ tendency to value something more if they have made it themselves. That is why brands often use the IKEA effect to have customizations for final products, as they help the consumer relate to it more and therefore appending to it more value.
The overview effect is a cognitive shift reported by some astronauts when they look back at the Earth from space. The shift occurs because of the impressive visual spectacle of the Earth and tends to be characterized by a state of awe and increased self-transcendence.
The house money effect was first described by researchers Richard Thaler and Eric Johnson in a 1990 study entitled Gambling with the House Money and Trying to Break Even: The Effects of Prior Outcomes on Risky Choice. The house money effect is a cognitive bias where investors take higher risks on reinvested capital than they would on an initial investment.
As highlighted by German psychologist Gerd Gigerenzer in the paper “Heuristic Decision Making,” the term heuristic is of Greek origin, meaning “serving to find out or discover.” More precisely, a heuristic is a fast and accurate way to make decisions in the real world, which is driven by uncertainty.
The recognition heuristic is a psychological model of judgment and decision making. It is part of a suite of simple and economical heuristics proposed by psychologists Daniel Goldstein and Gerd Gigerenzer. The recognition heuristic argues that inferences are made about an object based on whether it is recognized or not.
The representativeness heuristic was first described by psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky. The representativeness heuristic judges the probability of an event according to the degree to which that event resembles a broader class. When queried, most will choose the first option because the description of John matches the stereotype we may hold for an archaeologist.
The take-the-best heuristic is a decision-making shortcut that helps an individual choose between several alternatives. The take-the-best (TTB) heuristic decides between two or more alternatives based on a single good attribute, otherwise known as a cue. In the process, less desirable attributes are ignored.
The bundling bias is a cognitive bias in e-commerce where a consumer tends not to use all of the products bought as a group, or bundle. Bundling occurs when individual products or services are sold together as a bundle. Common examples are tickets and experiences. The bundling bias dictates that consumers are less likely to use each item in the bundle. This means that the value of the bundle and indeed the value of each item in the bundle is decreased.
The Barnum Effect is a cognitive bias where individuals believe that generic information – which applies to most people – is specifically tailored for themselves.
The anchoring effect describes the human tendency to rely on an initial piece of information (the “anchor”) to make subsequent judgments or decisions. Price anchoring, then, is the process of establishing a price point that customers can reference when making a buying decision.
The decoy effect is a psychological phenomenon where inferior – or decoy – options influence consumer preferences. Businesses use the decoy effect to nudge potential customers toward the desired target product. The decoy effect is staged by placing a competitorproduct and a decoy product, which is primarily used to nudge the customer toward the target product.
Commitment bias describes the tendency of an individual to remain committed to past behaviors – even if they result in undesirable outcomes. The bias is particularly pronounced when such behaviors are performed publicly. Commitment bias is also known as escalation of commitment.
First-principles thinking – sometimes called reasoning from first principles – is used to reverse-engineer complex problems and encourage creativity. It involves breaking down problems into basic elements and reassembling them from the ground up. Elon Musk is among the strongest proponents of this way of thinking.
The ladder of inference is a conscious or subconscious thinking process where an individual moves from a fact to a decision or action. The ladder of inference was created by academic Chris Argyris to illustrate how people form and then use mental models to make decisions.
Goodhart’s Law is named after British monetary policy theorist and economist Charles Goodhart. Speaking at a conference in Sydney in 1975, Goodhart said that “any observed statistical regularity will tend to collapse once pressure is placed upon it for control purposes.” Goodhart’s Law states that when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure.
The Six Thinking Hats model was created by psychologist Edward de Bono in 1986, who noted that personality type was a key driver of how people approached problem-solving. For example, optimists view situations differently from pessimists. Analytical individuals may generate ideas that a more emotional person would not, and vice versa.
The Mandela effect is a phenomenon where a large group of people remembers an event differently from how it occurred. The Mandela effect was first described in relation to Fiona Broome, who believed that former South African President Nelson Mandela died in prison during the 1980s. While Mandela was released from prison in 1990 and died 23 years later, Broome remembered news coverage of his death in prison and even a speech from his widow. Of course, neither event occurred in reality. But Broome was later to discover that she was not the only one with the same recollection of events.
The bandwagon effect tells us that the more a belief or idea has been adopted by more people within a group, the more the individual adoption of that idea might increase within the same group. This is the psychological effect that leads to herd mentality. What in marketing can be associated with social proof.
Moore’s law states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years. This observation was made by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in 1965 and it become a guiding principle for the semiconductor industry and has had far-reaching implications for technology as a whole.
Disruptive innovation as a term was first described by Clayton M. Christensen, an American academic and business consultant whom The Economist called “the most influential management thinker of his time.” Disruptive innovation describes the process by which a product or service takes hold at the bottom of a market and eventually displaces established competitors, products, firms, or alliances.
Value migration was first described by author Adrian Slywotzky in his 1996 book Value Migration – How to Think Several Moves Ahead of the Competition. Value migration is the transferal of value-creating forces from outdated business models to something better able to satisfy consumer demands.
The bye-now effect describes the tendency for consumers to think of the word “buy” when they read the word “bye”. In a study that tracked diners at a name-your-own-price restaurant, each diner was asked to read one of two phrases before ordering their meal. The first phrase, “so long”, resulted in diners paying an average of $32 per meal. But when diners recited the phrase “bye bye” before ordering, the average price per meal rose to $45.
Groupthink occurs when well-intentioned individuals make non-optimal or irrational decisions based on a belief that dissent is impossible or on a motivation to conform. Groupthink occurs when members of a group reach a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the alternatives and their consequences.
A stereotype is a fixed and over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people. These beliefs are based on the false assumption that certain characteristics are common to every individual residing in that group. Many stereotypes have a long and sometimes controversial history and are a direct consequence of various political, social, or economic events. Stereotyping is the process of making assumptions about a person or group of people based on various attributes, including gender, race, religion, or physical traits.
Murphy’s Law states that if anything can go wrong, it will go wrong. Murphy’s Law was named after aerospace engineer Edward A. Murphy. During his time working at Edwards Air Force Base in 1949, Murphy cursed a technician who had improperly wired an electrical component and said, “If there is any way to do it wrong, he’ll find it.”
The law of unintended consequences was first mentioned by British philosopher John Locke when writing to parliament about the unintended effects of interest rate rises. However, it was popularized in 1936 by American sociologist Robert K. Merton who looked at unexpected, unanticipated, and unintended consequences and their impact on society.
Fundamental attribution error is a bias people display when judging the behavior of others. The tendency is to over-emphasize personal characteristics and under-emphasize environmental and situational factors.
Outcome bias describes a tendency to evaluate a decision based on its outcome and not on the process by which the decision was reached. In other words, the quality of a decision is only determined once the outcome is known. Outcome bias occurs when a decision is based on the outcome of previous events without regard for how those events developed.
Hindsight bias is the tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were. The result of a presidential election, for example, seems more obvious when the winner is announced. The same can also be said for the avid sports fan who predicted the correct outcome of a match regardless of whether their team won or lost. Hindsight bias, therefore, is the tendency for an individual to convince themselves that they accurately predicted an event before it happened.
Gennaro is the creator of FourWeekMBA, which reached about four million business people, comprising C-level executives, investors, analysts, product managers, and aspiring digital entrepreneurs in 2022 alone | He is also Director of Sales for a high-tech scaleup in the AI Industry | In 2012, Gennaro earned an International MBA with emphasis on Corporate Finance and Business Strategy.
