information-overload

Information Overload

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Information Overload is characterized by excessive data exposure, leading to cognitive strain. It is fueled by the digital age and multitasking. Consequences include reduced productivity and heightened stress. Coping strategies involve filtering information and digital detox. This phenomenon has implications for decision-making and information quality, with applications in technology design and the workplace.

Definition and Overview

  • Information Overload is a cognitive phenomenon characterized by an excessive amount of information that individuals encounter, leading to difficulties in processing, managing, and making decisions based on that information.
  • It often occurs in the context of the digital age, where information is readily accessible through various sources such as the internet, social media, and communication technologies.

Key Concepts and Elements

  • Excessive Information:
    • Information overload arises when individuals are exposed to a vast and unmanageable volume of data, often beyond their capacity to absorb and process.
  • Multimodal Sources:
    • Information comes from multiple sources, including emails, news feeds, social media, online articles, and messages from various platforms, contributing to the overwhelming nature of the problem.
  • Reduced Attention and Decision Quality:
    • Information overload can lead to reduced attention spans and hinder the ability to make well-informed decisions due to cognitive exhaustion.

Causes and Triggers

  • Digital Technology:
    • The rapid advancement of digital technology has made information more accessible than ever before, contributing to the overload.
  • Social Media and Connectivity:
    • Social media platforms, constant connectivity, and real-time updates can flood individuals with an incessant stream of information.
  • 24/7 News Cycle:
    • The continuous news cycle can inundate individuals with breaking news, updates, and information, making it challenging to keep up.

Signs and Symptoms

  • Overwhelm:
    • Individuals experiencing information overload often feel overwhelmed, stressed, or anxious due to the sheer volume of information to process.
  • Reduced Productivity:
    • Information overload can lead to decreased productivity as individuals struggle to focus on tasks amid constant distractions.
  • Decision Paralysis:
    • When faced with a multitude of data, decision-making can become difficult, leading to procrastination and delayed choices.

Impact and Consequences

  • Diminished Information Quality:
    • Information overload can lead to shallow processing of information, reducing the depth of understanding and critical analysis.
  • Impaired Memory:
    • Cognitive overload can negatively impact memory retention, making it challenging to recall important details.
  • Burnout and Stress:
    • Constant exposure to excessive information can contribute to burnout and chronic stress, affecting overall well-being.

Managing Information Overload

  • Filtering and Prioritization:
    • Prioritize essential information and filter out non-essential or redundant data.
    • Use tools and strategies like email filters, news aggregators, and task prioritization.
  • Digital Detox:
    • Take regular breaks from digital devices and screens to reduce exposure to information overload.
  • Set Information Boundaries:
    • Establish specific times for checking emails, social media, and news updates to prevent constant interruption.
  • Information Literacy:
    • Develop critical thinking skills to evaluate the credibility and relevance of sources, helping filter out low-quality information.

Examples and Real-World Scenarios

  • Workplace Emails:
    • Employees often receive an overwhelming number of work-related emails, making it challenging to manage their inboxes efficiently.
  • Social Media Feeds:
    • Social media platforms continuously deliver a stream of posts, comments, and updates, leading to information overload for users.
  • News Consumption:
    • Keeping up with global news can become overwhelming due to the constant flow of information from various sources.

Case Studies

  • Social Media Feeds: Scrolling through a constantly updating social media feed with a barrage of posts, articles, and notifications can lead to Information Overload, making it challenging to focus on specific content.
  • Email Inbox: Having hundreds or thousands of unread emails in an inbox can overwhelm individuals, making it difficult to identify and respond to important messages promptly.
  • News Consumption: Trying to keep up with breaking news from multiple sources, especially during a crisis, can result in Information Overload as people seek updates and insights.
  • Academic Research: Students and researchers can experience Information Overload when sifting through a vast amount of academic papers, journals, and articles to gather relevant information for their work.
  • E-commerce Websites: Online shoppers often encounter an abundance of product options, reviews, and recommendations when searching for a specific item, leading to decision paralysis due to Information Overload.
  • Corporate Data: Professionals may grapple with Information Overload in the workplace, trying to analyze extensive datasets, reports, and market research to make informed business decisions.
  • Traffic Information: Commuters navigating through real-time traffic updates, road closures, and alternate routes can experience Information Overload when trying to plan their journeys effectively.
  • Healthcare Records: Healthcare providers dealing with electronic health records may find it challenging to extract critical patient information from a vast database of medical history.
  • Online Learning Platforms: Students participating in online courses may feel overwhelmed by the abundance of course materials, discussion forums, and supplementary resources.
  • Personal Productivity Tools: Using task management apps and to-do lists can lead to Information Overload if individuals create an extensive list of tasks that becomes difficult to manage.

Key Highlights

  • Definition: Information Overload refers to a situation where an individual or organization is exposed to an excessive amount of information, making it challenging to process, manage, and make informed decisions.
  • Digital Age Challenge: The rapid growth of digital technology and the internet has significantly contributed to Information Overload, as people have easy access to vast amounts of data and content.
  • Symptoms: Common symptoms include feeling overwhelmed, difficulty in concentrating, reduced productivity, decision paralysis, and increased stress levels.
  • Social Media Impact: Social media platforms, with their constant stream of updates, notifications, and content, are prime contributors to Information Overload, often leading to compulsive checking and scrolling.
  • Email Overload: Email inboxes flooded with messages can hinder effective communication and lead to missed important emails.
  • Filtering and Prioritization: Effective strategies for managing Information Overload include implementing filters, setting priorities, and using information management tools.
  • Decision Making: Information Overload can negatively affect decision-making processes, leading to poor choices or delayed actions.
  • Workplace Challenge: Many professionals experience Information Overload in the workplace, where they must sift through vast amounts of data, reports, and emails to perform their roles effectively.
  • Mitigation Strategies: Strategies to combat Information Overload include time management techniques, digital detox, mindfulness, and the use of information curation tools.
  • Information Literacy: Developing information literacy skills is crucial for individuals and organizations to navigate the digital landscape effectively and avoid succumbing to Information Overload.
  • Impact on Well-being: Prolonged exposure to Information Overload can have adverse effects on mental well-being, leading to stress, anxiety, and burnout.
  • Technological Solutions: Some software tools and applications are designed to help individuals manage and organize information, making it more digestible and accessible.

FrameworkDescriptionWhen to Apply
Information Filtering– Information Filtering: Information overload can be mitigated through effective information filtering techniques that help individuals and organizations manage the flow of information. Understanding information filtering principles helps identify relevant information, prioritize content, and reduce cognitive overload. Interventions may involve the use of filters, algorithms, and personalization tools to streamline information consumption and focus on high-priority sources.– Managing the flow of information and reducing cognitive overload through filters, algorithms, and personalization tools, in content curation or information management systems where relevance is critical, in implementing knowledge management strategies that prioritize information sources, in adopting approaches that streamline information consumption through information filtering principles.
Attention Management– Attention Management: Information overload can be addressed through attention management techniques that help individuals allocate their cognitive resources effectively. Understanding attention management principles helps individuals stay focused, avoid distractions, and maintain productivity in the face of information overload. Interventions may involve time management strategies, mindfulness practices, and task prioritization techniques to enhance attentional control and reduce the impact of information overload on decision-making and performance.– Enhancing attentional control and maintaining productivity through time management strategies or mindfulness practices, in high-pressure environments or fast-paced industries where focus is crucial, in implementing task prioritization techniques that optimize cognitive resources, in adopting approaches that promote mindfulness and resilience through attention management principles.
Information Architecture– Information Architecture: Information overload can be managed through effective information architecture that organizes and structures information in a clear and intuitive manner. Understanding information architecture principles helps individuals and organizations design information systems that facilitate navigation, search, and retrieval of relevant information. Interventions may involve the development of taxonomies, metadata standards, and user interface design principles to create user-friendly information environments and reduce cognitive load.– Organizing and structuring information in a clear and intuitive manner through taxonomies, metadata standards, and user interface design principles, in content management systems or digital libraries where information access is critical, in implementing search optimization techniques that improve information retrieval, in adopting approaches that enhance user experience through information architecture principles.
Digital Detox– Digital Detox: Information overload can be mitigated through periodic digital detoxes that involve unplugging from digital devices and reducing exposure to online information. Understanding the importance of digital detox helps individuals recharge, reduce stress, and regain focus in an increasingly connected world. Interventions may involve designated offline periods, mindfulness retreats, and technology-free zones to promote well-being and alleviate the negative effects of information overload on mental health and productivity.– Promoting well-being and reducing stress through designated offline periods or mindfulness retreats, in high-stress environments or industries where burnout is prevalent, in implementing technology-free zones that encourage social interaction and relaxation, in adopting approaches that promote work-life balance through digital detox principles.
Critical Information Evaluation– Critical Information Evaluation: Information overload can be addressed through critical information evaluation techniques that help individuals assess the credibility, relevance, and accuracy of information sources. Understanding critical information evaluation principles helps individuals discern trustworthy sources, filter out misinformation, and make informed decisions amidst information overload. Interventions may involve media literacy training, fact-checking exercises, and critical thinking workshops to develop skills for evaluating information critically and reducing the risk of misinformation consumption.– Assessing the credibility and relevance of information sources through media literacy training or fact-checking exercises, in environments where misinformation is prevalent or information quality is questionable, in implementing critical thinking workshops that develop analytical skills, in adopting approaches that promote information literacy and responsible consumption through critical information evaluation principles.
Information Visualization– Information Visualization: Information overload can be managed through effective information visualization techniques that transform complex data into visually accessible formats. Understanding information visualization principles helps individuals interpret and understand large volumes of information more efficiently. Interventions may involve the use of charts, graphs, and interactive dashboards to present information in intuitive and engaging ways, facilitating data exploration and decision-making in the face of information overload.– Interpreting complex data more efficiently through charts, graphs, and interactive dashboards, in data analysis or decision-making processes where information overload is common, in implementing visualization tools that enhance data exploration and understanding, in adopting approaches that improve communication and engagement through information visualization principles.
Personal Knowledge Management– Personal Knowledge Management: Information overload can be managed at the individual level through personal knowledge management techniques that help individuals organize, retrieve, and share information effectively. Understanding personal knowledge management principles helps individuals develop strategies for information organization, workflow optimization, and lifelong learning. Interventions may involve the use of note-taking apps, knowledge repositories, and personal learning networks to curate information, capture insights, and collaborate with others in managing information overload effectively.– Organizing, retrieving, and sharing information effectively through note-taking apps, knowledge repositories, and personal learning networks, in personal productivity or professional development where information management is crucial, in implementing workflow optimization techniques that streamline information processing, in adopting approaches that promote continuous learning and knowledge sharing through personal knowledge management principles.
Decision Support Systems– Decision Support Systems: Information overload can be alleviated through the use of decision support systems that provide insights, recommendations, and analytics to aid decision-making processes. Understanding decision support systems helps organizations leverage technology to filter and prioritize information, reducing cognitive overload and improving decision quality. Interventions may involve the implementation of analytics platforms, AI-driven algorithms, and expert systems to automate data analysis and decision support, enabling individuals to make informed decisions amidst information overload.– Automating data analysis and decision support through analytics platforms or AI-driven algorithms, in complex decision-making processes or strategic planning where information overload is common, in implementing expert systems that provide insights and recommendations, in adopting approaches that improve decision quality and efficiency through decision support systems principles.
Content Curation– Content Curation: Information overload can be managed through content curation techniques that involve selecting, organizing, and presenting relevant information to audiences. Understanding content curation principles helps individuals and organizations sift through vast amounts of information to identify high-quality content and deliver it in a meaningful way. Interventions may involve the use of content curation tools, editorial guidelines, and user feedback mechanisms to curate content effectively and provide value to target audiences amidst information overload.– Selecting, organizing, and presenting relevant information effectively through content curation tools or editorial guidelines, in content marketing or knowledge sharing initiatives where quality is paramount, in implementing user feedback mechanisms that enhance content relevance and engagement, in adopting approaches that add value to audiences through content curation principles.
Information Literacy Education– Information Literacy Education: Information overload can be addressed through information literacy education that equips individuals with the skills and competencies needed to navigate, evaluate, and use information effectively. Understanding information literacy principles helps individuals become discerning consumers and producers of information in an increasingly complex information landscape. Interventions may involve information literacy courses, library workshops, and digital literacy programs to promote critical thinking, information evaluation, and ethical information use among individuals of all ages.– Equipping individuals with skills to navigate and evaluate information effectively through information literacy courses or digital literacy programs, in educational settings or workplace training where digital skills are essential, in implementing library workshops that promote critical thinking and research skills, in adopting approaches that foster responsible information use through information literacy education principles.
Collaborative Information Management– Collaborative Information Management: Information overload can be managed collaboratively through shared information management practices that enable teams to organize, access, and collaborate on information effectively. Understanding collaborative information management principles helps teams streamline communication, foster knowledge sharing, and reduce duplication of effort in information-intensive environments. Interventions may involve the use of collaborative platforms, version control systems, and knowledge sharing protocols to facilitate team collaboration and information exchange, enhancing productivity and decision-making amidst information overload.– Streamlining communication and fostering knowledge sharing through collaborative platforms or knowledge sharing protocols, in team-based projects or collaborative research initiatives where information management is critical, in implementing version control systems that prevent duplication of effort, in adopting approaches that enhance team productivity through collaborative information management principles.

Connected Thinking Frameworks

Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking

convergent-vs-divergent-thinking
Convergent thinking occurs when the solution to a problem can be found by applying established rules and logical reasoning. Whereas divergent thinking is an unstructured problem-solving method where participants are encouraged to develop many innovative ideas or solutions to a given problem. Where convergent thinking might work for larger, mature organizations where divergent thinking is more suited for startups and innovative companies.

Critical Thinking

critical-thinking
Critical thinking involves analyzing observations, facts, evidence, and arguments to form a judgment about what someone reads, hears, says, or writes.

Biases

biases
The concept of cognitive biases was introduced and popularized by the work of Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972. Biases are seen as systematic errors and flaws that make humans deviate from the standards of rationality, thus making us inept at making good decisions under uncertainty.

Second-Order Thinking

second-order-thinking
Second-order thinking is a means of assessing the implications of our decisions by considering future consequences. Second-order thinking is a mental model that considers all future possibilities. It encourages individuals to think outside of the box so that they can prepare for every and eventuality. It also discourages the tendency for individuals to default to the most obvious choice.

Lateral Thinking

lateral-thinking
Lateral thinking is a business strategy that involves approaching a problem from a different direction. The strategy attempts to remove traditionally formulaic and routine approaches to problem-solving by advocating creative thinking, therefore finding unconventional ways to solve a known problem. This sort of non-linear approach to problem-solving, can at times, create a big impact.

Bounded Rationality

bounded-rationality
Bounded rationality is a concept attributed to Herbert Simon, an economist and political scientist interested in decision-making and how we make decisions in the real world. In fact, he believed that rather than optimizing (which was the mainstream view in the past decades) humans follow what he called satisficing.

Dunning-Kruger Effect

dunning-kruger-effect
The Dunning-Kruger effect describes a cognitive bias where people with low ability in a task overestimate their ability to perform that task well. Consumers or businesses that do not possess the requisite knowledge make bad decisions. What’s more, knowledge gaps prevent the person or business from seeing their mistakes.

Occam’s Razor

occams-razor
Occam’s Razor states that one should not increase (beyond reason) the number of entities required to explain anything. All things being equal, the simplest solution is often the best one. The principle is attributed to 14th-century English theologian William of Ockham.

Lindy Effect

lindy-effect
The Lindy Effect is a theory about the ageing of non-perishable things, like technology or ideas. Popularized by author Nicholas Nassim Taleb, the Lindy Effect states that non-perishable things like technology age – linearly – in reverse. Therefore, the older an idea or a technology, the same will be its life expectancy.

Antifragility

antifragility
Antifragility was first coined as a term by author, and options trader Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Antifragility is a characteristic of systems that thrive as a result of stressors, volatility, and randomness. Therefore, Antifragile is the opposite of fragile. Where a fragile thing breaks up to volatility; a robust thing resists volatility. An antifragile thing gets stronger from volatility (provided the level of stressors and randomness doesn’t pass a certain threshold).

Systems Thinking

systems-thinking
Systems thinking is a holistic means of investigating the factors and interactions that could contribute to a potential outcome. It is about thinking non-linearly, and understanding the second-order consequences of actions and input into the system.

Vertical Thinking

vertical-thinking
Vertical thinking, on the other hand, is a problem-solving approach that favors a selective, analytical, structured, and sequential mindset. The focus of vertical thinking is to arrive at a reasoned, defined solution.

Maslow’s Hammer

einstellung-effect
Maslow’s Hammer, otherwise known as the law of the instrument or the Einstellung effect, is a cognitive bias causing an over-reliance on a familiar tool. This can be expressed as the tendency to overuse a known tool (perhaps a hammer) to solve issues that might require a different tool. This problem is persistent in the business world where perhaps known tools or frameworks might be used in the wrong context (like business plans used as planning tools instead of only investors’ pitches).

Peter Principle

peter-principle
The Peter Principle was first described by Canadian sociologist Lawrence J. Peter in his 1969 book The Peter Principle. The Peter Principle states that people are continually promoted within an organization until they reach their level of incompetence.

Straw Man Fallacy

straw-man-fallacy
The straw man fallacy describes an argument that misrepresents an opponent’s stance to make rebuttal more convenient. The straw man fallacy is a type of informal logical fallacy, defined as a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders it invalid.

Streisand Effect

streisand-effect
The Streisand Effect is a paradoxical phenomenon where the act of suppressing information to reduce visibility causes it to become more visible. In 2003, Streisand attempted to suppress aerial photographs of her Californian home by suing photographer Kenneth Adelman for an invasion of privacy. Adelman, who Streisand assumed was paparazzi, was instead taking photographs to document and study coastal erosion. In her quest for more privacy, Streisand’s efforts had the opposite effect.

Heuristic

heuristic
As highlighted by German psychologist Gerd Gigerenzer in the paper “Heuristic Decision Making,” the term heuristic is of Greek origin, meaning “serving to find out or discover.” More precisely, a heuristic is a fast and accurate way to make decisions in the real world, which is driven by uncertainty.

Recognition Heuristic

recognition-heuristic
The recognition heuristic is a psychological model of judgment and decision making. It is part of a suite of simple and economical heuristics proposed by psychologists Daniel Goldstein and Gerd Gigerenzer. The recognition heuristic argues that inferences are made about an object based on whether it is recognized or not.

Representativeness Heuristic

representativeness-heuristic
The representativeness heuristic was first described by psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky. The representativeness heuristic judges the probability of an event according to the degree to which that event resembles a broader class. When queried, most will choose the first option because the description of John matches the stereotype we may hold for an archaeologist.

Take-The-Best Heuristic

take-the-best-heuristic
The take-the-best heuristic is a decision-making shortcut that helps an individual choose between several alternatives. The take-the-best (TTB) heuristic decides between two or more alternatives based on a single good attribute, otherwise known as a cue. In the process, less desirable attributes are ignored.

Bundling Bias

bundling-bias
The bundling bias is a cognitive bias in e-commerce where a consumer tends not to use all of the products bought as a group, or bundle. Bundling occurs when individual products or services are sold together as a bundle. Common examples are tickets and experiences. The bundling bias dictates that consumers are less likely to use each item in the bundle. This means that the value of the bundle and indeed the value of each item in the bundle is decreased.

Barnum Effect

barnum-effect
The Barnum Effect is a cognitive bias where individuals believe that generic information – which applies to most people – is specifically tailored for themselves.

First-Principles Thinking

first-principles-thinking
First-principles thinking – sometimes called reasoning from first principles – is used to reverse-engineer complex problems and encourage creativity. It involves breaking down problems into basic elements and reassembling them from the ground up. Elon Musk is among the strongest proponents of this way of thinking.

Ladder Of Inference

ladder-of-inference
The ladder of inference is a conscious or subconscious thinking process where an individual moves from a fact to a decision or action. The ladder of inference was created by academic Chris Argyris to illustrate how people form and then use mental models to make decisions.

Goodhart’s Law

goodharts-law
Goodhart’s Law is named after British monetary policy theorist and economist Charles Goodhart. Speaking at a conference in Sydney in 1975, Goodhart said that “any observed statistical regularity will tend to collapse once pressure is placed upon it for control purposes.” Goodhart’s Law states that when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure.

Six Thinking Hats Model

six-thinking-hats-model
The Six Thinking Hats model was created by psychologist Edward de Bono in 1986, who noted that personality type was a key driver of how people approached problem-solving. For example, optimists view situations differently from pessimists. Analytical individuals may generate ideas that a more emotional person would not, and vice versa.

Mandela Effect

mandela-effect
The Mandela effect is a phenomenon where a large group of people remembers an event differently from how it occurred. The Mandela effect was first described in relation to Fiona Broome, who believed that former South African President Nelson Mandela died in prison during the 1980s. While Mandela was released from prison in 1990 and died 23 years later, Broome remembered news coverage of his death in prison and even a speech from his widow. Of course, neither event occurred in reality. But Broome was later to discover that she was not the only one with the same recollection of events.

Crowding-Out Effect

crowding-out-effect
The crowding-out effect occurs when public sector spending reduces spending in the private sector.

Bandwagon Effect

bandwagon-effect
The bandwagon effect tells us that the more a belief or idea has been adopted by more people within a group, the more the individual adoption of that idea might increase within the same group. This is the psychological effect that leads to herd mentality. What in marketing can be associated with social proof.

Moore’s Law

moores-law
Moore’s law states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years. This observation was made by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in 1965 and it become a guiding principle for the semiconductor industry and has had far-reaching implications for technology as a whole.

Disruptive Innovation

disruptive-innovation
Disruptive innovation as a term was first described by Clayton M. Christensen, an American academic and business consultant whom The Economist called “the most influential management thinker of his time.” Disruptive innovation describes the process by which a product or service takes hold at the bottom of a market and eventually displaces established competitors, products, firms, or alliances.

Value Migration

value-migration
Value migration was first described by author Adrian Slywotzky in his 1996 book Value Migration – How to Think Several Moves Ahead of the Competition. Value migration is the transferal of value-creating forces from outdated business models to something better able to satisfy consumer demands.

Bye-Now Effect

bye-now-effect
The bye-now effect describes the tendency for consumers to think of the word “buy” when they read the word “bye”. In a study that tracked diners at a name-your-own-price restaurant, each diner was asked to read one of two phrases before ordering their meal. The first phrase, “so long”, resulted in diners paying an average of $32 per meal. But when diners recited the phrase “bye bye” before ordering, the average price per meal rose to $45.

Groupthink

groupthink
Groupthink occurs when well-intentioned individuals make non-optimal or irrational decisions based on a belief that dissent is impossible or on a motivation to conform. Groupthink occurs when members of a group reach a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the alternatives and their consequences.

Stereotyping

stereotyping
A stereotype is a fixed and over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people. These beliefs are based on the false assumption that certain characteristics are common to every individual residing in that group. Many stereotypes have a long and sometimes controversial history and are a direct consequence of various political, social, or economic events. Stereotyping is the process of making assumptions about a person or group of people based on various attributes, including gender, race, religion, or physical traits.

Murphy’s Law

murphys-law
Murphy’s Law states that if anything can go wrong, it will go wrong. Murphy’s Law was named after aerospace engineer Edward A. Murphy. During his time working at Edwards Air Force Base in 1949, Murphy cursed a technician who had improperly wired an electrical component and said, “If there is any way to do it wrong, he’ll find it.”

Law of Unintended Consequences

law-of-unintended-consequences
The law of unintended consequences was first mentioned by British philosopher John Locke when writing to parliament about the unintended effects of interest rate rises. However, it was popularized in 1936 by American sociologist Robert K. Merton who looked at unexpected, unanticipated, and unintended consequences and their impact on society.

Fundamental Attribution Error

fundamental-attribution-error
Fundamental attribution error is a bias people display when judging the behavior of others. The tendency is to over-emphasize personal characteristics and under-emphasize environmental and situational factors.

Outcome Bias

outcome-bias
Outcome bias describes a tendency to evaluate a decision based on its outcome and not on the process by which the decision was reached. In other words, the quality of a decision is only determined once the outcome is known. Outcome bias occurs when a decision is based on the outcome of previous events without regard for how those events developed.

Hindsight Bias

hindsight-bias
Hindsight bias is the tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were. The result of a presidential election, for example, seems more obvious when the winner is announced. The same can also be said for the avid sports fan who predicted the correct outcome of a match regardless of whether their team won or lost. Hindsight bias, therefore, is the tendency for an individual to convince themselves that they accurately predicted an event before it happened.

Read Next: Biases, Bounded Rationality, Mandela Effect, Dunning-Kruger Effect, Lindy Effect, Crowding Out Effect, Bandwagon Effect.

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