Higher order conditioning, also known as second-order conditioning, is a type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus (a conditioned stimulus or CS) acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response (CR) without direct pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Instead, it occurs through the association of the neutral stimulus with a previously established conditioned stimulus.
Higher order conditioning is a fundamental concept in psychology that plays a crucial role in understanding how learning and associative processes work. It builds upon the foundational principles of classical conditioning, demonstrating how previously conditioned stimuli can be used to create new conditioned responses.
The concept of higher order conditioning was first introduced by the Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, who is renowned for his pioneering work in classical conditioning. Pavlov’s experiments with dogs laid the foundation for understanding how organisms associate stimuli and responses.
Mechanisms of Higher Order Conditioning
Higher order conditioning operates through a series of steps that involve the transfer of association from one stimulus to another:
First-Order Conditioning: In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) to produce a conditioned response (CR). This creates an association between the NS and the US.
Second-Order Conditioning: In higher order conditioning, the previously conditioned stimulus (CS) from the first-order conditioning becomes the new CS. It is then paired with a second neutral stimulus (the higher-order CS) that has not been directly associated with the US.
Conditioned Response: Over time, the organism begins to exhibit the conditioned response (CR) to the higher-order CS, even in the absence of the original unconditioned stimulus (US).
The key mechanism at play in higher order conditioning is the transfer of the learned association from the original CS to the higher-order CS. This transfer allows the higher-order CS to acquire the ability to elicit the CR on its own.
Real-World Examples of Higher Order Conditioning
Higher order conditioning is not limited to laboratory settings but can be observed in various real-world scenarios. Here are a few examples:
1. Advertising and Branding
Advertisers often use higher order conditioning to associate their products with positive emotions or experiences. For instance, a commercial may first pair a product with a celebrity endorsement (the first-order CS) to create a positive impression. Subsequently, the product is featured without the celebrity, and consumers still associate it with positive feelings.
2. Phobias and Fear Responses
In the development of phobias, a person may initially associate a neutral stimulus (such as an elevator) with a traumatic event (the US) that induces fear. Over time, the elevator itself can become a higher-order CS, leading to fear responses even when the traumatic event is not present.
3. Cultural and Social Conditioning
Cultural norms and social conditioning can also involve higher order conditioning. A particular behavior or belief may be first associated with societal approval or disapproval (the US), and individuals may subsequently exhibit the behavior or belief in response to cues associated with societal expectations (the higher-order CS).
4. Education and Learning
In education, higher order conditioning can be used to build on previously learned associations. For example, a student may initially associate studying (the first-order CS) with improved grades (the US). Later, the act of setting up a study environment (the higher-order CS) may trigger a motivation to study.
Significance of Higher Order Conditioning
Higher order conditioning holds significant implications for our understanding of learning and behavior:
1. Complex Learning
It demonstrates that learning can occur in a more complex manner than classical conditioning alone. Higher order conditioning allows organisms to acquire new associations and responses based on previously learned information.
2. Cognitive Processes
Higher order conditioning suggests the involvement of cognitive processes in learning. Organisms must process and transfer information from one stimulus to another, indicating that cognitive factors play a role in associative learning.
3. Adaptive Behavior
The ability to form higher order associations can be adaptive. It allows organisms to respond to cues and signals in their environment, even when the original stimuli are not present. This flexibility can aid in survival and decision-making.
4. Psychological Treatments
Understanding higher order conditioning can be valuable in psychological treatments. Therapists can use this knowledge to help individuals modify learned associations, such as overcoming phobias or changing maladaptive behaviors.
5. Marketing and Persuasion
Marketers and advertisers often leverage higher order conditioning to influence consumer behavior. Understanding how associations are formed and transferred can inform persuasive strategies.
Criticisms and Limitations
While higher order conditioning is a well-documented phenomenon, it is not without its criticisms and limitations:
1. Complexity
Higher order conditioning introduces complexity into our understanding of learning. Some argue that simpler explanations, such as stimulus generalization, may account for many observed phenomena.
2. Practical Application
The practical application of higher order conditioning principles
can be challenging, especially in real-world contexts where multiple factors influence behavior.
3. Individual Differences
Individuals may vary in their susceptibility to higher order conditioning. Factors such as cognitive abilities, prior experiences, and genetic predispositions can influence the strength of learned associations.
4. Ethical Concerns
In some cases, the use of higher order conditioning for marketing or persuasion purposes has raised ethical concerns, particularly when it exploits vulnerabilities or induces unwanted behaviors.
Experimental Methods in Higher Order Conditioning
Researchers use various experimental methods to study higher order conditioning. These methods typically involve creating experimental scenarios in which associations between stimuli are established and measured. Some common techniques include:
1. Pavlovian Conditioning
Researchers often use variations of Pavlovian conditioning paradigms to investigate higher order conditioning. These experiments may involve the pairing of visual, auditory, or tactile stimuli as CSs and USs.
2. Extinction and Reacquisition
Extinction involves presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US) to weaken the learned association. Researchers may then reintroduce the CS-US pairing to assess the reacquisition of the CR.
3. Functional MRI (fMRI) and Neuroimaging
Neuroimaging techniques, such as fMRI, allow researchers to examine the neural processes involved in higher order conditioning. These studies provide insights into brain regions and networks associated with associative learning.
4. Behavioral Observations
Behavioral observations involve recording and analyzing the participant’s responses to stimuli and their changes over time. Researchers measure the strength and persistence of conditioned responses.
Conclusion
Higher order conditioning is a vital concept in psychology that demonstrates the complexity and adaptability of learning processes. It builds upon the foundational principles of classical conditioning, illustrating how previously established associations can be transferred to new stimuli. This phenomenon has broad implications for understanding behavior, cognitive processes, marketing strategies, and psychological treatments. While it is not without its limitations and ethical considerations, higher order conditioning remains a valuable area of study in the field of psychology, shedding light on the intricate ways in which organisms learn and adapt to their environments.
Key Highlights
Introduction:
Higher order conditioning explains how neutral stimuli can elicit responses through association.
It was first introduced by Ivan Pavlov, the pioneer of classical conditioning.
Defining Higher Order Conditioning:
Concept:
It’s associative learning where a neutral stimulus gains the ability to evoke a response without direct pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.
Origin:
Ivan Pavlov coined the term and laid the groundwork for understanding associative learning.
Mechanisms of Higher Order Conditioning:
First-Order Conditioning:
Pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
Second-Order Conditioning:
The previously conditioned stimulus becomes the new conditioned stimulus and is paired with another neutral stimulus.
Conditioned Response:
The organism exhibits the conditioned response to the second neutral stimulus.
Real-World Examples:
Advertising and Branding:
Products associated with positive emotions through endorsements.
Phobias and Fear Responses:
Neutral stimuli associated with traumatic events can induce fear.
Cultural and Social Conditioning:
Societal norms linked to behaviors or beliefs.
Education and Learning:
Study environments triggering motivation to study.
Convergent thinking occurs when the solution to a problem can be found by applying established rules and logical reasoning. Whereas divergent thinking is an unstructured problem-solving method where participants are encouraged to develop many innovative ideas or solutions to a given problem. Where convergent thinking might work for larger, mature organizations where divergent thinking is more suited for startups and innovative companies.
The concept of cognitive biases was introduced and popularized by the work of Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972. Biases are seen as systematic errors and flaws that make humans deviate from the standards of rationality, thus making us inept at making good decisions under uncertainty.
Second-order thinking is a means of assessing the implications of our decisions by considering future consequences. Second-order thinking is a mental model that considers all future possibilities. It encourages individuals to think outside of the box so that they can prepare for every and eventuality. It also discourages the tendency for individuals to default to the most obvious choice.
Lateral thinking is a business strategy that involves approaching a problem from a different direction. The strategy attempts to remove traditionally formulaic and routine approaches to problem-solving by advocating creative thinking, therefore finding unconventional ways to solve a known problem. This sort of non-linear approach to problem-solving, can at times, create a big impact.
Bounded rationality is a concept attributed to Herbert Simon, an economist and political scientist interested in decision-making and how we make decisions in the real world. In fact, he believed that rather than optimizing (which was the mainstream view in the past decades) humans follow what he called satisficing.
The Dunning-Kruger effect describes a cognitive bias where people with low ability in a task overestimate their ability to perform that task well. Consumers or businesses that do not possess the requisite knowledge make bad decisions. What’s more, knowledge gaps prevent the person or business from seeing their mistakes.
Occam’s Razor states that one should not increase (beyond reason) the number of entities required to explain anything. All things being equal, the simplest solution is often the best one. The principle is attributed to 14th-century English theologian William of Ockham.
The Lindy Effect is a theory about the ageing of non-perishable things, like technology or ideas. Popularized by author Nicholas Nassim Taleb, the Lindy Effect states that non-perishable things like technology age – linearly – in reverse. Therefore, the older an idea or a technology, the same will be its life expectancy.
Antifragility was first coined as a term by author, and options trader Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Antifragility is a characteristic of systems that thrive as a result of stressors, volatility, and randomness. Therefore, Antifragile is the opposite of fragile. Where a fragile thing breaks up to volatility; a robust thing resists volatility. An antifragile thing gets stronger from volatility (provided the level of stressors and randomness doesn’t pass a certain threshold).
Systems thinking is a holistic means of investigating the factors and interactions that could contribute to a potential outcome. It is about thinking non-linearly, and understanding the second-order consequences of actions and input into the system.
Vertical thinking, on the other hand, is a problem-solving approach that favors a selective, analytical, structured, and sequential mindset. The focus of vertical thinking is to arrive at a reasoned, defined solution.
Maslow’s Hammer, otherwise known as the law of the instrument or the Einstellung effect, is a cognitive bias causing an over-reliance on a familiar tool. This can be expressed as the tendency to overuse a known tool (perhaps a hammer) to solve issues that might require a different tool. This problem is persistent in the business world where perhaps known tools or frameworks might be used in the wrong context (like business plans used as planning tools instead of only investors’ pitches).
The Peter Principle was first described by Canadian sociologist Lawrence J. Peter in his 1969 book The Peter Principle. The Peter Principle states that people are continually promoted within an organization until they reach their level of incompetence.
The straw man fallacy describes an argument that misrepresents an opponent’s stance to make rebuttal more convenient. The straw man fallacy is a type of informal logical fallacy, defined as a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders it invalid.
The Streisand Effect is a paradoxical phenomenon where the act of suppressing information to reduce visibility causes it to become more visible. In 2003, Streisand attempted to suppress aerial photographs of her Californian home by suing photographer Kenneth Adelman for an invasion of privacy. Adelman, who Streisand assumed was paparazzi, was instead taking photographs to document and study coastal erosion. In her quest for more privacy, Streisand’s efforts had the opposite effect.
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The recognition heuristic is a psychological model of judgment and decision making. It is part of a suite of simple and economical heuristics proposed by psychologists Daniel Goldstein and Gerd Gigerenzer. The recognition heuristic argues that inferences are made about an object based on whether it is recognized or not.
The representativeness heuristic was first described by psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky. The representativeness heuristic judges the probability of an event according to the degree to which that event resembles a broader class. When queried, most will choose the first option because the description of John matches the stereotype we may hold for an archaeologist.
The take-the-best heuristic is a decision-making shortcut that helps an individual choose between several alternatives. The take-the-best (TTB) heuristic decides between two or more alternatives based on a single good attribute, otherwise known as a cue. In the process, less desirable attributes are ignored.
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The Barnum Effect is a cognitive bias where individuals believe that generic information – which applies to most people – is specifically tailored for themselves.
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The ladder of inference is a conscious or subconscious thinking process where an individual moves from a fact to a decision or action. The ladder of inference was created by academic Chris Argyris to illustrate how people form and then use mental models to make decisions.
Goodhart’s Law is named after British monetary policy theorist and economist Charles Goodhart. Speaking at a conference in Sydney in 1975, Goodhart said that “any observed statistical regularity will tend to collapse once pressure is placed upon it for control purposes.” Goodhart’s Law states that when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure.
The Six Thinking Hats model was created by psychologist Edward de Bono in 1986, who noted that personality type was a key driver of how people approached problem-solving. For example, optimists view situations differently from pessimists. Analytical individuals may generate ideas that a more emotional person would not, and vice versa.
The Mandela effect is a phenomenon where a large group of people remembers an event differently from how it occurred. The Mandela effect was first described in relation to Fiona Broome, who believed that former South African President Nelson Mandela died in prison during the 1980s. While Mandela was released from prison in 1990 and died 23 years later, Broome remembered news coverage of his death in prison and even a speech from his widow. Of course, neither event occurred in reality. But Broome was later to discover that she was not the only one with the same recollection of events.
The bandwagon effect tells us that the more a belief or idea has been adopted by more people within a group, the more the individual adoption of that idea might increase within the same group. This is the psychological effect that leads to herd mentality. What in marketing can be associated with social proof.
Moore’s law states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years. This observation was made by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in 1965 and it become a guiding principle for the semiconductor industry and has had far-reaching implications for technology as a whole.
Disruptive innovation as a term was first described by Clayton M. Christensen, an American academic and business consultant whom The Economist called “the most influential management thinker of his time.” Disruptive innovation describes the process by which a product or service takes hold at the bottom of a market and eventually displaces established competitors, products, firms, or alliances.
Value migration was first described by author Adrian Slywotzky in his 1996 book Value Migration – How to Think Several Moves Ahead of the Competition. Value migration is the transferal of value-creating forces from outdated business models to something better able to satisfy consumer demands.
The bye-now effect describes the tendency for consumers to think of the word “buy” when they read the word “bye”. In a study that tracked diners at a name-your-own-price restaurant, each diner was asked to read one of two phrases before ordering their meal. The first phrase, “so long”, resulted in diners paying an average of $32 per meal. But when diners recited the phrase “bye bye” before ordering, the average price per meal rose to $45.
Groupthink occurs when well-intentioned individuals make non-optimal or irrational decisions based on a belief that dissent is impossible or on a motivation to conform. Groupthink occurs when members of a group reach a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the alternatives and their consequences.
A stereotype is a fixed and over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people. These beliefs are based on the false assumption that certain characteristics are common to every individual residing in that group. Many stereotypes have a long and sometimes controversial history and are a direct consequence of various political, social, or economic events. Stereotyping is the process of making assumptions about a person or group of people based on various attributes, including gender, race, religion, or physical traits.
Murphy’s Law states that if anything can go wrong, it will go wrong. Murphy’s Law was named after aerospace engineer Edward A. Murphy. During his time working at Edwards Air Force Base in 1949, Murphy cursed a technician who had improperly wired an electrical component and said, “If there is any way to do it wrong, he’ll find it.”
The law of unintended consequences was first mentioned by British philosopher John Locke when writing to parliament about the unintended effects of interest rate rises. However, it was popularized in 1936 by American sociologist Robert K. Merton who looked at unexpected, unanticipated, and unintended consequences and their impact on society.
Fundamental attribution error is a bias people display when judging the behavior of others. The tendency is to over-emphasize personal characteristics and under-emphasize environmental and situational factors.
Outcome bias describes a tendency to evaluate a decision based on its outcome and not on the process by which the decision was reached. In other words, the quality of a decision is only determined once the outcome is known. Outcome bias occurs when a decision is based on the outcome of previous events without regard for how those events developed.
Hindsight bias is the tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were. The result of a presidential election, for example, seems more obvious when the winner is announced. The same can also be said for the avid sports fan who predicted the correct outcome of a match regardless of whether their team won or lost. Hindsight bias, therefore, is the tendency for an individual to convince themselves that they accurately predicted an event before it happened.
Gennaro is the creator of FourWeekMBA, which reached about four million business people, comprising C-level executives, investors, analysts, product managers, and aspiring digital entrepreneurs in 2022 alone | He is also Director of Sales for a high-tech scaleup in the AI Industry | In 2012, Gennaro earned an International MBA with emphasis on Corporate Finance and Business Strategy.
