Retroactive Interference

Business / By / November 21, 2023

Retroactive Interference is a memory phenomenon where new information disrupts the retrieval of older memories. It occurs due to competition for retrieval, interference strength, and cognitive load. This can impair memory recall and affect learning. Examples include language learning and sequential tasks. Understanding it is crucial for effective education and memory management.

Defining Retroactive Interference

Characteristics and Key Features

Retroactive interference is characterized by several key features:

  1. Memory Impairment: The primary characteristic of retroactive interference is that it impairs the recall or retrieval of previously learned information. This can manifest as forgetting, confusion, or a reduced ability to access the original memory.
  2. New Information: Retroactive interference occurs when newly acquired information interferes with the retrieval of older memories. The interference typically happens shortly after the new information is learned.
  3. Similarity: The interfering information is often similar to the original memory in some way, such as sharing common elements, themes, or associations. The degree of similarity between the old and new information can impact the extent of interference.
  4. Temporal Order: The timing of when the interfering information is learned matters. Retroactive interference is most potent when the new information is acquired shortly after the original memory is formed. The closer in time these events occur, the greater the interference.
  5. Competing Memories: Retroactive interference implies a competition between the old and new memories when attempting to retrieve information. The interfering information competes for retrieval, making it harder to access the original memory.

Cognitive Mechanisms Underlying Retroactive Interference

Several cognitive mechanisms contribute to retroactive interference:

  1. Interference Theory: Retroactive interference is consistent with the broader framework of interference theory. This theory posits that forgetting or memory impairment occurs when information competes for retrieval, and interference from new information can disrupt the retrieval of older memories.
  2. Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference: Interference can be proactive or retroactive. Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the acquisition or recall of new information. In contrast, retroactive interference occurs when newly acquired information disrupts the retrieval of older memories.
  3. Similarity-Based Interference: The similarity between the old and new information plays a crucial role in retroactive interference. If the new information is highly similar to the original memory, it is more likely to interfere with retrieval. This is because the brain may struggle to differentiate between the two, leading to confusion.
  4. Strength of Encoding: The strength with which memories are initially encoded can influence the susceptibility to retroactive interference. Memories that are encoded more strongly are generally more resistant to interference.
  5. Temporal Gradient: The timing of the interference matters. Retroactive interference is most potent when the interfering information is learned shortly after the original memory is formed. As time passes, the interference tends to diminish.

Real-World Examples of Retroactive Interference

Retroactive interference is not just a theoretical concept; it has practical implications in various aspects of our lives:

Language Learning

Imagine trying to learn a new language while retaining your proficiency in your native language. The acquisition of new vocabulary and grammar rules can lead to retroactive interference, making it challenging to recall specific words or phrases in your native language.

Education

In an educational context, students often encounter retroactive interference when studying similar subjects or topics. For example, when learning about different historical events that occurred in a similar time period, the details of one event may interfere with the recall of details from another event.

Daily Information Processing

In our daily lives, we constantly encounter new information, from phone numbers and addresses to passwords and PINs. The introduction of new information can interfere with the retrieval of previously learned information, leading to memory lapses.

Mitigating the Effects of Retroactive Interference

While retroactive interference is a natural cognitive phenomenon, there are strategies individuals can employ to mitigate its effects:

Spaced Practice

Spacing out learning sessions over time can reduce retroactive interference. This is known as the spacing effect. By revisiting and reinforcing older memories before new information is introduced, individuals can strengthen the original memories.

Retrieval Practice

Actively recalling previously learned information through retrieval practice can help combat retroactive interference. Regular self-testing or quizzing on older material can reinforce memory retrieval pathways and make the original memories more resistant to interference.

Mnemonics and Organization

Using mnemonic devices and organizational strategies can aid memory retention. Mnemonics provide mental hooks that make it easier to retrieve information, reducing the likelihood of interference.

Prioritize Important Information

Recognize the importance of specific information or memories and prioritize them. By focusing on essential knowledge, individuals can allocate cognitive resources to protect those memories from interference.

Minimize Similarity

In situations where individuals are aware of potential interference, they can actively seek to minimize the similarity between old and new information. For example, when learning two similar concepts, emphasizing their differences can help prevent confusion.

Conclusion

Retroactive interference is a fundamental aspect of memory that has far-reaching implications in our daily lives, from language learning and education to information processing. Understanding the characteristics and mechanisms of retroactive interference allows us to develop strategies to mitigate its effects and optimize memory retention. By applying these strategies, individuals can harness the power of their memory while navigating a world filled with a constant influx of new information.

Case Studies

  • Learning Multiple Languages: When learning multiple languages simultaneously, the vocabulary and grammar of one language can interfere with the recall of words and phrases from another.
  • Studying Similar Subjects: When students study subjects with overlapping content, like biology and chemistry, information from one subject may interfere with the retention of details from the other.
  • Sequential Sports Skills: Athletes who need to master sequential movements, such as gymnasts or figure skaters, may experience interference if they switch to a new routine that disrupts their muscle memory for the previous one.
  • Remembering Phone Numbers: Trying to remember a new phone number can interfere with recalling the old one, especially if they are similar.
  • Textbook Reading: Reading multiple chapters from different textbooks in one study session can lead to interference, making it harder to remember specific details from each chapter.
  • Learning Musical Instruments: Musicians transitioning from one musical instrument to another may experience interference in terms of finger placement and muscle memory.
  • Computer Passwords: Frequent changes in computer passwords can lead to interference, causing users to mix up old and new passwords.
  • Navigation Routes: Trying to memorize a new route to a location can interfere with the ability to remember an old route to the same place.
  • Exam Preparation: Studying for multiple exams scheduled close together may result in interference, making it challenging to recall specific details for each subject.
  • Cooking Recipes: Learning and remembering new recipes can interfere with the retention of previously learned cooking techniques and ingredient combinations.

Key Highlights

  • Learning Multiple Languages: When learning multiple languages simultaneously, the vocabulary and grammar of one language can interfere with the recall of words and phrases from another.
  • Studying Similar Subjects: When students study subjects with overlapping content, like biology and chemistry, information from one subject may interfere with the retention of details from the other.
  • Sequential Sports Skills: Athletes who need to master sequential movements, such as gymnasts or figure skaters, may experience interference if they switch to a new routine that disrupts their muscle memory for the previous one.
  • Remembering Phone Numbers: Trying to remember a new phone number can interfere with recalling the old one, especially if they are similar.
  • Textbook Reading: Reading multiple chapters from different textbooks in one study session can lead to interference, making it harder to remember specific details from each chapter.
  • Learning Musical Instruments: Musicians transitioning from one musical instrument to another may experience interference in terms of finger placement and muscle memory.
  • Computer Passwords: Frequent changes in computer passwords can lead to interference, causing users to mix up old and new passwords.
  • Navigation Routes: Trying to memorize a new route to a location can interfere with the ability to remember an old route to the same place.
  • Exam Preparation: Studying for multiple exams scheduled close together may result in interference, making it challenging to recall specific details for each subject.
  • Cooking Recipes: Learning and remembering new recipes can interfere with the retention of previously learned cooking techniques and ingredient combinations.

Connected Thinking Frameworks

Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking

convergent-vs-divergent-thinking
Convergent thinking occurs when the solution to a problem can be found by applying established rules and logical reasoning. Whereas divergent thinking is an unstructured problem-solving method where participants are encouraged to develop many innovative ideas or solutions to a given problem. Where convergent thinking might work for larger, mature organizations where divergent thinking is more suited for startups and innovative companies.

Critical Thinking

critical-thinking
Critical thinking involves analyzing observations, facts, evidence, and arguments to form a judgment about what someone reads, hears, says, or writes.

Biases

biases
The concept of cognitive biases was introduced and popularized by the work of Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972. Biases are seen as systematic errors and flaws that make humans deviate from the standards of rationality, thus making us inept at making good decisions under uncertainty.

Second-Order Thinking

second-order-thinking
Second-order thinking is a means of assessing the implications of our decisions by considering future consequences. Second-order thinking is a mental model that considers all future possibilities. It encourages individuals to think outside of the box so that they can prepare for every and eventuality. It also discourages the tendency for individuals to default to the most obvious choice.

Lateral Thinking

lateral-thinking
Lateral thinking is a business strategy that involves approaching a problem from a different direction. The strategy attempts to remove traditionally formulaic and routine approaches to problem-solving by advocating creative thinking, therefore finding unconventional ways to solve a known problem. This sort of non-linear approach to problem-solving, can at times, create a big impact.

Bounded Rationality

bounded-rationality
Bounded rationality is a concept attributed to Herbert Simon, an economist and political scientist interested in decision-making and how we make decisions in the real world. In fact, he believed that rather than optimizing (which was the mainstream view in the past decades) humans follow what he called satisficing.

Dunning-Kruger Effect

dunning-kruger-effect
The Dunning-Kruger effect describes a cognitive bias where people with low ability in a task overestimate their ability to perform that task well. Consumers or businesses that do not possess the requisite knowledge make bad decisions. What’s more, knowledge gaps prevent the person or business from seeing their mistakes.

Occam’s Razor

occams-razor
Occam’s Razor states that one should not increase (beyond reason) the number of entities required to explain anything. All things being equal, the simplest solution is often the best one. The principle is attributed to 14th-century English theologian William of Ockham.

Lindy Effect

lindy-effect
The Lindy Effect is a theory about the ageing of non-perishable things, like technology or ideas. Popularized by author Nicholas Nassim Taleb, the Lindy Effect states that non-perishable things like technology age – linearly – in reverse. Therefore, the older an idea or a technology, the same will be its life expectancy.

Antifragility

antifragility
Antifragility was first coined as a term by author, and options trader Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Antifragility is a characteristic of systems that thrive as a result of stressors, volatility, and randomness. Therefore, Antifragile is the opposite of fragile. Where a fragile thing breaks up to volatility; a robust thing resists volatility. An antifragile thing gets stronger from volatility (provided the level of stressors and randomness doesn’t pass a certain threshold).

Systems Thinking

systems-thinking
Systems thinking is a holistic means of investigating the factors and interactions that could contribute to a potential outcome. It is about thinking non-linearly, and understanding the second-order consequences of actions and input into the system.

Vertical Thinking

vertical-thinking
Vertical thinking, on the other hand, is a problem-solving approach that favors a selective, analytical, structured, and sequential mindset. The focus of vertical thinking is to arrive at a reasoned, defined solution.

Maslow’s Hammer

einstellung-effect
Maslow’s Hammer, otherwise known as the law of the instrument or the Einstellung effect, is a cognitive bias causing an over-reliance on a familiar tool. This can be expressed as the tendency to overuse a known tool (perhaps a hammer) to solve issues that might require a different tool. This problem is persistent in the business world where perhaps known tools or frameworks might be used in the wrong context (like business plans used as planning tools instead of only investors’ pitches).

Peter Principle

peter-principle
The Peter Principle was first described by Canadian sociologist Lawrence J. Peter in his 1969 book The Peter Principle. The Peter Principle states that people are continually promoted within an organization until they reach their level of incompetence.

Straw Man Fallacy

straw-man-fallacy
The straw man fallacy describes an argument that misrepresents an opponent’s stance to make rebuttal more convenient. The straw man fallacy is a type of informal logical fallacy, defined as a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders it invalid.

Streisand Effect

streisand-effect
The Streisand Effect is a paradoxical phenomenon where the act of suppressing information to reduce visibility causes it to become more visible. In 2003, Streisand attempted to suppress aerial photographs of her Californian home by suing photographer Kenneth Adelman for an invasion of privacy. Adelman, who Streisand assumed was paparazzi, was instead taking photographs to document and study coastal erosion. In her quest for more privacy, Streisand’s efforts had the opposite effect.

Heuristic

heuristic
As highlighted by German psychologist Gerd Gigerenzer in the paper “Heuristic Decision Making,” the term heuristic is of Greek origin, meaning “serving to find out or discover.” More precisely, a heuristic is a fast and accurate way to make decisions in the real world, which is driven by uncertainty.

Recognition Heuristic

recognition-heuristic
The recognition heuristic is a psychological model of judgment and decision making. It is part of a suite of simple and economical heuristics proposed by psychologists Daniel Goldstein and Gerd Gigerenzer. The recognition heuristic argues that inferences are made about an object based on whether it is recognized or not.

Representativeness Heuristic

representativeness-heuristic
The representativeness heuristic was first described by psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky. The representativeness heuristic judges the probability of an event according to the degree to which that event resembles a broader class. When queried, most will choose the first option because the description of John matches the stereotype we may hold for an archaeologist.

Take-The-Best Heuristic

take-the-best-heuristic
The take-the-best heuristic is a decision-making shortcut that helps an individual choose between several alternatives. The take-the-best (TTB) heuristic decides between two or more alternatives based on a single good attribute, otherwise known as a cue. In the process, less desirable attributes are ignored.

Bundling Bias

bundling-bias
The bundling bias is a cognitive bias in e-commerce where a consumer tends not to use all of the products bought as a group, or bundle. Bundling occurs when individual products or services are sold together as a bundle. Common examples are tickets and experiences. The bundling bias dictates that consumers are less likely to use each item in the bundle. This means that the value of the bundle and indeed the value of each item in the bundle is decreased.

Barnum Effect

barnum-effect
The Barnum Effect is a cognitive bias where individuals believe that generic information – which applies to most people – is specifically tailored for themselves.

First-Principles Thinking

first-principles-thinking
First-principles thinking – sometimes called reasoning from first principles – is used to reverse-engineer complex problems and encourage creativity. It involves breaking down problems into basic elements and reassembling them from the ground up. Elon Musk is among the strongest proponents of this way of thinking.

Ladder Of Inference

ladder-of-inference
The ladder of inference is a conscious or subconscious thinking process where an individual moves from a fact to a decision or action. The ladder of inference was created by academic Chris Argyris to illustrate how people form and then use mental models to make decisions.

Goodhart’s Law

goodharts-law
Goodhart’s Law is named after British monetary policy theorist and economist Charles Goodhart. Speaking at a conference in Sydney in 1975, Goodhart said that “any observed statistical regularity will tend to collapse once pressure is placed upon it for control purposes.” Goodhart’s Law states that when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure.

Six Thinking Hats Model

six-thinking-hats-model
The Six Thinking Hats model was created by psychologist Edward de Bono in 1986, who noted that personality type was a key driver of how people approached problem-solving. For example, optimists view situations differently from pessimists. Analytical individuals may generate ideas that a more emotional person would not, and vice versa.

Mandela Effect

mandela-effect
The Mandela effect is a phenomenon where a large group of people remembers an event differently from how it occurred. The Mandela effect was first described in relation to Fiona Broome, who believed that former South African President Nelson Mandela died in prison during the 1980s. While Mandela was released from prison in 1990 and died 23 years later, Broome remembered news coverage of his death in prison and even a speech from his widow. Of course, neither event occurred in reality. But Broome was later to discover that she was not the only one with the same recollection of events.

Crowding-Out Effect

crowding-out-effect
The crowding-out effect occurs when public sector spending reduces spending in the private sector.

Bandwagon Effect

bandwagon-effect
The bandwagon effect tells us that the more a belief or idea has been adopted by more people within a group, the more the individual adoption of that idea might increase within the same group. This is the psychological effect that leads to herd mentality. What in marketing can be associated with social proof.

Moore’s Law

moores-law
Moore’s law states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years. This observation was made by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in 1965 and it become a guiding principle for the semiconductor industry and has had far-reaching implications for technology as a whole.

Disruptive Innovation

disruptive-innovation
Disruptive innovation as a term was first described by Clayton M. Christensen, an American academic and business consultant whom The Economist called “the most influential management thinker of his time.” Disruptive innovation describes the process by which a product or service takes hold at the bottom of a market and eventually displaces established competitors, products, firms, or alliances.

Value Migration

value-migration
Value migration was first described by author Adrian Slywotzky in his 1996 book Value Migration – How to Think Several Moves Ahead of the Competition. Value migration is the transferal of value-creating forces from outdated business models to something better able to satisfy consumer demands.

Bye-Now Effect

bye-now-effect
The bye-now effect describes the tendency for consumers to think of the word “buy” when they read the word “bye”. In a study that tracked diners at a name-your-own-price restaurant, each diner was asked to read one of two phrases before ordering their meal. The first phrase, “so long”, resulted in diners paying an average of $32 per meal. But when diners recited the phrase “bye bye” before ordering, the average price per meal rose to $45.

Groupthink

groupthink
Groupthink occurs when well-intentioned individuals make non-optimal or irrational decisions based on a belief that dissent is impossible or on a motivation to conform. Groupthink occurs when members of a group reach a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the alternatives and their consequences.

Stereotyping

stereotyping
A stereotype is a fixed and over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people. These beliefs are based on the false assumption that certain characteristics are common to every individual residing in that group. Many stereotypes have a long and sometimes controversial history and are a direct consequence of various political, social, or economic events. Stereotyping is the process of making assumptions about a person or group of people based on various attributes, including gender, race, religion, or physical traits.

Murphy’s Law

murphys-law
Murphy’s Law states that if anything can go wrong, it will go wrong. Murphy’s Law was named after aerospace engineer Edward A. Murphy. During his time working at Edwards Air Force Base in 1949, Murphy cursed a technician who had improperly wired an electrical component and said, “If there is any way to do it wrong, he’ll find it.”

Law of Unintended Consequences

law-of-unintended-consequences
The law of unintended consequences was first mentioned by British philosopher John Locke when writing to parliament about the unintended effects of interest rate rises. However, it was popularized in 1936 by American sociologist Robert K. Merton who looked at unexpected, unanticipated, and unintended consequences and their impact on society.

Fundamental Attribution Error

fundamental-attribution-error
Fundamental attribution error is a bias people display when judging the behavior of others. The tendency is to over-emphasize personal characteristics and under-emphasize environmental and situational factors.

Outcome Bias

outcome-bias
Outcome bias describes a tendency to evaluate a decision based on its outcome and not on the process by which the decision was reached. In other words, the quality of a decision is only determined once the outcome is known. Outcome bias occurs when a decision is based on the outcome of previous events without regard for how those events developed.

Hindsight Bias

hindsight-bias
Hindsight bias is the tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were. The result of a presidential election, for example, seems more obvious when the winner is announced. The same can also be said for the avid sports fan who predicted the correct outcome of a match regardless of whether their team won or lost. Hindsight bias, therefore, is the tendency for an individual to convince themselves that they accurately predicted an event before it happened.

Read Next: Biases, Bounded Rationality, Mandela Effect, Dunning-Kruger Effect, Lindy Effect, Crowding Out Effect, Bandwagon Effect.

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About The Author

Gennaro is the creator of FourWeekMBA, which reached about four million business people, comprising C-level executives, investors, analysts, product managers, and aspiring digital entrepreneurs in 2022 alone | He is also Director of Sales for a high-tech scaleup in the AI Industry | In 2012, Gennaro earned an International MBA with emphasis on Corporate Finance and Business Strategy.
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