A fixed ratio schedule is a concept in behavioral psychology that plays a fundamental role in understanding how reinforcement schedules influence human and animal behavior. It is one of several schedules of reinforcement used to modify and shape behaviors through the delivery of rewards or reinforcements.
A fixed ratio (FR) schedule is a type of reinforcement schedule in which a specific number of responses is required to produce a reinforcer or reward. In other words, reinforcement is delivered after a fixed and predetermined number of desired behaviors or responses are performed. This fixed number is denoted as “n” in the context of behavioral psychology.
Example of Fixed Ratio Schedule
Imagine a scenario in which a laboratory rat is trained using a fixed ratio schedule. The experimenter sets an FR-5 schedule for the rat to receive food rewards. This means that the rat must press a lever or engage in a specific behavior (e.g., pressing the lever) five times to receive a single food pellet as reinforcement.
Characteristics of Fixed Ratio Schedules
Fixed ratio schedules have several defining characteristics:
1. Fixed Response Requirement
In a fixed ratio schedule, the number of responses required to obtain reinforcement remains constant. For example, in an FR-5 schedule, the subject must always perform five responses to receive a reward.
2. Predictable Reinforcement
Subjects under a fixed ratio schedule can predict when they will receive reinforcement because the response requirement is known and constant.
3. High Response Rate
Fixed ratio schedules typically result in high response rates, especially just before the reinforcement is due. This is often referred to as a “post-reinforcement pause,” followed by a burst of activity as the subject attempts to meet the response requirement.
4. Fast Acquisition of Behavior
Behaviors tend to be acquired or strengthened more quickly under fixed ratio schedules compared to other schedules, such as fixed interval or variable ratio schedules.
5. Limited Resistance to Extinction
One drawback of fixed ratio schedules is that the behaviors maintained under them tend to have limited resistance to extinction. When reinforcement is discontinued, the behaviors can rapidly diminish.
Real-World Applications of Fixed Ratio Schedules
Fixed ratio schedules have applications in various real-world contexts:
1. Sales and Commissions
In a sales job, employees may receive a fixed commission for every certain number of products sold (e.g., every five products sold). This serves as a motivational tool to encourage increased sales efforts.
2. Piecework Pay
In manufacturing or production settings, workers may be paid based on a fixed ratio system, where they earn a set amount for every completed task or product manufactured.
3. Student Rewards
Teachers may use fixed ratio schedules in the classroom as a form of positive reinforcement. For instance, a teacher might reward students with a sticker for every five correct answers they provide, motivating active participation.
4. Retail Loyalty Programs
Retail stores often implement fixed ratio schedules through customer loyalty programs. For every “x” number of purchases or points earned, customers receive a reward or discount on future purchases.
5. Frequent Flyer Programs
Airlines use fixed ratio schedules in their frequent flyer programs. Passengers earn a certain number of miles or points for each mile flown, which can be redeemed for free flights or upgrades.
Impact on Behavior Modification
Fixed ratio schedules have a significant impact on behavior modification and conditioning:
1. Efficient Learning
These schedules promote efficient learning and rapid acquisition of behaviors. Subjects quickly learn that a specific number of responses lead to reinforcement, which motivates them to engage in the desired behavior.
2. Stimulate High Activity
Fixed ratio schedules stimulate high levels of activity just before the reinforcement is expected. This is known as the “ratio run.” Subjects become more active in an attempt to meet the response requirement.
3. Behavioral Persistence
While behaviors acquired under fixed ratio schedules can be highly persistent, they also tend to extinguish quickly when reinforcement is no longer provided. This makes them less resistant to extinction compared to behaviors reinforced under variable schedules.
4. Token Economies
In clinical and therapeutic settings, token economies often employ fixed ratio schedules. Patients or clients earn tokens for performing specific behaviors or tasks, and these tokens can be exchanged for rewards or privileges.
5. Workplace Performance
Fixed ratio schedules are commonly used in workplace performance incentives, such as sales targets or production quotas. Meeting these predetermined goals results in bonuses, commissions, or other rewards.
Variations of Fixed Ratio Schedules
While fixed ratio schedules maintain a constant response requirement, there are variations that offer different levels of challenge and reinforcement frequency:
1. Fixed Ratio 1 (FR-1)
In an FR-1 schedule, reinforcement is delivered after every single response. This schedule is known as continuous reinforcement and is highly effective for behavior acquisition.
2. Fixed Ratio 2 (FR-2), FR-3, FR-4, etc.
In these schedules, reinforcement is delivered after every second, third, fourth, and so on, response. For example, in an FR-3 schedule, reinforcement is provided after every third response.
3. Super Fixed Ratio (SFR)
A super fixed ratio schedule involves a higher response requirement before reinforcement is delivered. For instance, in an SFR-10 schedule, the subject must complete ten responses to receive reinforcement.
4. Post-Reinforcement Pause
In fixed ratio schedules, a post-reinforcement pause often occurs just after reinforcement is provided. During this pause, the subject temporarily stops responding before resuming the behavior.
Criticisms of Fixed Ratio Schedules
While fixed ratio schedules are valuable tools in behavior modification, they are not without criticisms:
1. Limited Resistance to Extinction
One of the primary criticisms of fixed ratio schedules is that behaviors acquired under them tend to extinguish quickly when reinforcement is discontinued. This makes them less suitable for maintaining long-term behavior.
2. Ratio Strain
If the response requirement is set too high in a fixed ratio schedule, it can lead to what is known as “ratio strain.” Subjects may become frustrated or demotivated, causing behavioral disruption.
3. Predictability
The predictability of fixed ratio schedules can lead to the development of superstitious behaviors, where subjects attribute the reinforcement to irrelevant actions or behaviors.
4. Not Suitable for All Behaviors
Fixed ratio schedules may not be appropriate for all behaviors, especially those that require sustained effort or those that are difficult to quantify.
Conclusion
Fixed ratio schedules are a key concept in behavioral psychology, shedding light on how reinforcement schedules influence behavior acquisition and modification. They involve delivering reinforcement after a fixed and predetermined number of responses, promoting efficient learning and high activity levels.
While fixed ratio schedules are effective for behavior acquisition, they have limitations, particularly in terms of resistance to extinction and the potential for ratio strain. Understanding these schedules and their variations is crucial for educators, employers, and clinicians seeking to modify behaviors and shape desired outcomes in various settings.
Key Highlights:
Definition: Fixed Ratio (FR) schedules of reinforcement require a specific number of responses to produce a reward or reinforcement, influencing behavior modification.
Characteristics: Fixed ratio schedules have fixed response requirements, predictable reinforcement delivery, high response rates, fast behavior acquisition, and limited resistance to extinction.
Examples: Seen in sales commissions, piecework pay, student rewards, retail loyalty programs, and frequent flyer programs, affecting motivation and behavior.
Impact on Behavior Modification: Fixed ratio schedules efficiently promote behavior learning, stimulate high activity, influence behavioral persistence, and are utilized in token economies and workplace performance incentives.
Variations: Include FR-1 (continuous reinforcement), FR-2, FR-3, super fixed ratio (SFR), and post-reinforcement pause, each with unique characteristics and challenges.
Criticisms: Fixed ratio schedules have limited resistance to extinction, may lead to ratio strain, can promote superstitious behaviors, and may not be suitable for all behaviors.
Convergent thinking occurs when the solution to a problem can be found by applying established rules and logical reasoning. Whereas divergent thinking is an unstructured problem-solving method where participants are encouraged to develop many innovative ideas or solutions to a given problem. Where convergent thinking might work for larger, mature organizations where divergent thinking is more suited for startups and innovative companies.
The concept of cognitive biases was introduced and popularized by the work of Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972. Biases are seen as systematic errors and flaws that make humans deviate from the standards of rationality, thus making us inept at making good decisions under uncertainty.
Second-order thinking is a means of assessing the implications of our decisions by considering future consequences. Second-order thinking is a mental model that considers all future possibilities. It encourages individuals to think outside of the box so that they can prepare for every and eventuality. It also discourages the tendency for individuals to default to the most obvious choice.
Lateral thinking is a business strategy that involves approaching a problem from a different direction. The strategy attempts to remove traditionally formulaic and routine approaches to problem-solving by advocating creative thinking, therefore finding unconventional ways to solve a known problem. This sort of non-linear approach to problem-solving, can at times, create a big impact.
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Systems thinking is a holistic means of investigating the factors and interactions that could contribute to a potential outcome. It is about thinking non-linearly, and understanding the second-order consequences of actions and input into the system.
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Maslow’s Hammer, otherwise known as the law of the instrument or the Einstellung effect, is a cognitive bias causing an over-reliance on a familiar tool. This can be expressed as the tendency to overuse a known tool (perhaps a hammer) to solve issues that might require a different tool. This problem is persistent in the business world where perhaps known tools or frameworks might be used in the wrong context (like business plans used as planning tools instead of only investors’ pitches).
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Groupthink occurs when well-intentioned individuals make non-optimal or irrational decisions based on a belief that dissent is impossible or on a motivation to conform. Groupthink occurs when members of a group reach a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the alternatives and their consequences.
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Murphy’s Law states that if anything can go wrong, it will go wrong. Murphy’s Law was named after aerospace engineer Edward A. Murphy. During his time working at Edwards Air Force Base in 1949, Murphy cursed a technician who had improperly wired an electrical component and said, “If there is any way to do it wrong, he’ll find it.”
The law of unintended consequences was first mentioned by British philosopher John Locke when writing to parliament about the unintended effects of interest rate rises. However, it was popularized in 1936 by American sociologist Robert K. Merton who looked at unexpected, unanticipated, and unintended consequences and their impact on society.
Fundamental attribution error is a bias people display when judging the behavior of others. The tendency is to over-emphasize personal characteristics and under-emphasize environmental and situational factors.
Outcome bias describes a tendency to evaluate a decision based on its outcome and not on the process by which the decision was reached. In other words, the quality of a decision is only determined once the outcome is known. Outcome bias occurs when a decision is based on the outcome of previous events without regard for how those events developed.
Hindsight bias is the tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were. The result of a presidential election, for example, seems more obvious when the winner is announced. The same can also be said for the avid sports fan who predicted the correct outcome of a match regardless of whether their team won or lost. Hindsight bias, therefore, is the tendency for an individual to convince themselves that they accurately predicted an event before it happened.
Gennaro is the creator of FourWeekMBA, which reached about four million business people, comprising C-level executives, investors, analysts, product managers, and aspiring digital entrepreneurs in 2022 alone | He is also Director of Sales for a high-tech scaleup in the AI Industry | In 2012, Gennaro earned an International MBA with emphasis on Corporate Finance and Business Strategy.
