Valuation Ratios

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Valuation RatioDescriptionWhen to UseExampleFormula
Price-to-Earnings (P/E) RatioCompares a company’s stock price to its earnings per share (EPS).Assess the relative value of a company’s stock.A P/E ratio of 15 indicates the stock is priced at 15 times earnings.P/E Ratio = Stock Price per Share / Earnings Per Share
Price-to-Book (P/B) RatioCompares a company’s stock price to its book value per share.Evaluate the relative value of a company’s assets.A P/B ratio of 1 suggests the stock is trading at its book value.P/B Ratio = Stock Price per Share / Book Value per Share
Price-to-Sales (P/S) RatioCompares a company’s stock price to its revenue per share.Assess the value of a company’s stock relative to its sales.A P/S ratio of 2 means the stock is priced at 2 times its sales.P/S Ratio = Stock Price per Share / Revenue per Share
Price-to-Cash Flow (P/CF) RatioCompares a company’s stock price to its cash flow per share.Evaluate the relative value of a company based on cash flow.A P/CF ratio of 10 suggests the stock is priced at 10 times cash flow.P/CF Ratio = Stock Price per Share / Cash Flow per Share
Price-to-Free Cash Flow (P/FCF) RatioCompares a company’s stock price to its free cash flow per share.Assess the relative value of a company based on free cash flow.A P/FCF ratio of 12 suggests the stock is priced at 12 times free cash flow.P/FCF Ratio = Stock Price per Share / Free Cash Flow per Share
Dividend Yield RatioCompares a company’s annual dividend per share to its stock price per share.Assess the income generated from dividend payments.A dividend yield of 3% means an annual dividend of $3 for every $100 invested.Dividend Yield = Annual Dividend per Share / Stock Price per Share
Dividend Payout RatioMeasures the percentage of earnings paid out as dividends.Assess the sustainability of dividend payments.A dividend payout ratio of 40% indicates 40% of earnings are paid as dividends.Dividend Payout Ratio = Dividends per Share / Earnings Per Share
Earnings Yield RatioRepresents the inverse of the P/E ratio, showing earnings as a percentage of the stock price.Assess the return on investment in terms of earnings.An earnings yield of 6% means a 6% return on investment in earnings.Earnings Yield = Earnings Per Share / Stock Price per Share
Book Value per ShareMeasures the value of shareholders’ equity attributed to each outstanding share.Assess the intrinsic value of each share.A book value per share of $20 means $20 of equity per share.Book Value per Share = Shareholders’ Equity / Number of Shares Outstanding
Enterprise Value (EV)Represents the total value of a company, including debt and equity, often used in acquisition analysis.Assess the total value of a company, accounting for debt.An enterprise value of $2 billion includes both equity and debt in the valuation.Enterprise Value = Market Capitalization + Total Debt – Cash and Cash Equivalents
Price/Earnings to Growth (PEG) RatioDivides the P/E ratio by the expected earnings growth rate, assessing valuation relative to growth.Evaluate the relationship between price, earnings, and growth.A PEG ratio of 1 suggests a fair valuation relative to expected earnings growth.PEG Ratio = P/E Ratio / Expected Earnings Growth Rate
Price-to-Operating Cash Flow (P/OCF) RatioCompares a company’s stock price to its operating cash flow per share.Assess the relative value of a company based on operating cash flow.A P/OCF ratio of 8 suggests the stock is priced at 8 times operating cash flow.P/OCF Ratio = Stock Price per Share / Operating Cash Flow per Share
Price-to-Earnings Growth (PEG) RatioDivides the P/E ratio by the expected earnings growth rate, assessing valuation relative to growth.Evaluate the relationship between price, earnings, and growth.A PEG ratio of 1 suggests a fair valuation relative to expected earnings growth.PEG Ratio = P/E Ratio / Expected Earnings Growth Rate
Price-to-Earnings to Growth and Dividend Yield (PEGY) RatioCombines the PEG ratio with dividend yield, considering valuation and income.Assess the relationship between price, earnings, growth, and dividends.A PEGY ratio below 1 suggests a stock may be undervalued considering earnings growth and dividends.PEGY Ratio = (P/E Ratio + Dividend Yield) / Expected Earnings Growth Rate
Price-to-Operating Income (P/OI) RatioCompares a company’s stock price to its operating income per share.Assess the relative value of a company based on operating income.A P/OI ratio of 12 suggests the stock is priced at 12 times operating income.P/OI Ratio = Stock Price per Share / Operating Income per Share
Price-to-Sales to Growth (PSG) RatioDivides the P/S ratio by the expected sales growth rate, evaluating valuation relative to sales growth.Assess valuation considering the relationship between price, sales, and growth.A PSG ratio of 1 suggests fair valuation relative to expected sales growth.PSG Ratio = P/S Ratio / Expected Sales Growth Rate
Price-to-Operating Cash Flow Growth (POCFG) RatioDivides the P/OCF ratio by the expected operating cash flow growth rate, assessing valuation relative to cash flow growth.Evaluate valuation considering the relationship between price, operating cash flow, and growth.A POCFG ratio of 0.8 suggests the stock is undervalued relative to expected operating cash flow growth.POCFG Ratio = P/OCF Ratio / Expected Operating Cash Flow Growth Rate
Price-to-EBITDA (P/EBITDA) RatioCompares a company’s stock price to its earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization (EBITDA) per share.Assess the relative value of a company based on EBITDA.A P/EBITDA ratio of 10 suggests the stock is priced at 10 times EBITDA.P/EBITDA Ratio = Stock Price per Share / EBITDA per Share
Price-to-Sales Growth (PSG) RatioDivides the P/S ratio by the expected sales growth rate, evaluating valuation relative to sales growth.Assess valuation considering the relationship between price, sales, and growth.A PSG ratio of 1 suggests fair valuation relative to expected sales growth.PSG Ratio = P/S Ratio / Expected Sales Growth Rate
The Enlightened Accountant by Gennaro Cuofano – FourWeekMBADownload

Connected Financial Concepts

Circle of Competence

circle-of-competence
The circle of competence describes a person’s natural competence in an area that matches their skills and abilities. Beyond this imaginary circle are skills and abilities that a person is naturally less competent at. The concept was popularised by Warren Buffett, who argued that investors should only invest in companies they know and understand. However, the circle of competence applies to any topic and indeed any individual.

What is a Moat

moat
Economic or market moats represent the long-term business defensibility. Or how long a business can retain its competitive advantage in the marketplace over the years. Warren Buffet who popularized the term “moat” referred to it as a share of mind, opposite to market share, as such it is the characteristic that all valuable brands have.

Buffet Indicator

buffet-indicator
The Buffet Indicator is a measure of the total value of all publicly-traded stocks in a country divided by that country’s GDP. It’s a measure and ratio to evaluate whether a market is undervalued or overvalued. It’s one of Warren Buffet’s favorite measures as a warning that financial markets might be overvalued and riskier.

Venture Capital

venture-capital
Venture capital is a form of investing skewed toward high-risk bets, that are likely to fail. Therefore venture capitalists look for higher returns. Indeed, venture capital is based on the power law, or the law for which a small number of bets will pay off big time for the larger numbers of low-return or investments that will go to zero. That is the whole premise of venture capital.

Foreign Direct Investment

foreign-direct-investment
Foreign direct investment occurs when an individual or business purchases an interest of 10% or more in a company that operates in a different country. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), this percentage implies that the investor can influence or participate in the management of an enterprise. When the interest is less than 10%, on the other hand, the IMF simply defines it as a security that is part of a stock portfolio. Foreign direct investment (FDI), therefore, involves the purchase of an interest in a company by an entity that is located in another country. 

Micro-Investing

micro-investing
Micro-investing is the process of investing small amounts of money regularly. The process of micro-investing involves small and sometimes irregular investments where the individual can set up recurring payments or invest a lump sum as cash becomes available.

Meme Investing

meme-investing
Meme stocks are securities that go viral online and attract the attention of the younger generation of retail investors. Meme investing, therefore, is a bottom-up, community-driven approach to investing that positions itself as the antonym to Wall Street investing. Also, meme investing often looks at attractive opportunities with lower liquidity that might be easier to overtake, thus enabling wide speculation, as “meme investors” often look for disproportionate short-term returns.

Retail Investing

retail-investing
Retail investing is the act of non-professional investors buying and selling securities for their own purposes. Retail investing has become popular with the rise of zero commissions digital platforms enabling anyone with small portfolio to trade.

Accredited Investor

accredited-investor
Accredited investors are individuals or entities deemed sophisticated enough to purchase securities that are not bound by the laws that protect normal investors. These may encompass venture capital, angel investments, private equity funds, hedge funds, real estate investment funds, and specialty investment funds such as those related to cryptocurrency. Accredited investors, therefore, are individuals or entities permitted to invest in securities that are complex, opaque, loosely regulated, or otherwise unregistered with a financial authority.

Startup Valuation

startup-valuation
Startup valuation describes a suite of methods used to value companies with little or no revenue. Therefore, startup valuation is the process of determining what a startup is worth. This value clarifies the company’s capacity to meet customer and investor expectations, achieve stated milestones, and use the new capital to grow.

Profit vs. Cash Flow

profit-vs-cash-flow
Profit is the total income that a company generates from its operations. This includes money from sales, investments, and other income sources. In contrast, cash flow is the money that flows in and out of a company. This distinction is critical to understand as a profitable company might be short of cash and have liquidity crises.

Double-Entry

double-entry-accounting
Double-entry accounting is the foundation of modern financial accounting. It’s based on the accounting equation, where assets equal liabilities plus equity. That is the fundamental unit to build financial statements (balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement). The basic concept of double-entry is that a single transaction, to be recorded, will hit two accounts.

Balance Sheet

balance-sheet
The purpose of the balance sheet is to report how the resources to run the operations of the business were acquired. The Balance Sheet helps to assess the financial risk of a business and the simplest way to describe it is given by the accounting equation (assets = liability + equity).

Income Statement

income-statement
The income statement, together with the balance sheet and the cash flow statement is among the key financial statements to understand how companies perform at fundamental level. The income statement shows the revenues and costs for a period and whether the company runs at profit or loss (also called P&L statement).

Cash Flow Statement

cash-flow-statement
The cash flow statement is the third main financial statement, together with income statement and the balance sheet. It helps to assess the liquidity of an organization by showing the cash balances coming from operations, investing and financing. The cash flow statement can be prepared with two separate methods: direct or indirect.

Capital Structure

capital-structure
The capital structure shows how an organization financed its operations. Following the balance sheet structure, usually, assets of an organization can be built either by using equity or liability. Equity usually comprises endowment from shareholders and profit reserves. Where instead, liabilities can comprise either current (short-term debt) or non-current (long-term obligations).

Capital Expenditure

capital-expenditure
Capital expenditure or capital expense represents the money spent toward things that can be classified as fixed asset, with a longer term value. As such they will be recorded under non-current assets, on the balance sheet, and they will be amortized over the years. The reduced value on the balance sheet is expensed through the profit and loss.

Financial Statements

financial-statements
Financial statements help companies assess several aspects of the business, from profitability (income statement) to how assets are sourced (balance sheet), and cash inflows and outflows (cash flow statement). Financial statements are also mandatory to companies for tax purposes. They are also used by managers to assess the performance of the business.

Financial Modeling

financial-modeling
Financial modeling involves the analysis of accounting, finance, and business data to predict future financial performance. Financial modeling is often used in valuation, which consists of estimating the value in dollar terms of a company based on several parameters. Some of the most common financial models comprise discounted cash flows, the M&A model, and the CCA model.

Business Valuation

valuation
Business valuations involve a formal analysis of the key operational aspects of a business. A business valuation is an analysis used to determine the economic value of a business or company unit. It’s important to note that valuations are one part science and one part art. Analysts use professional judgment to consider the financial performance of a business with respect to local, national, or global economic conditions. They will also consider the total value of assets and liabilities, in addition to patented or proprietary technology.

Financial Ratio

financial-ratio-formulas

WACC

weighted-average-cost-of-capital
The Weighted Average Cost of Capital can also be defined as the cost of capital. That’s a rate – net of the weight of the equity and debt the company holds – that assesses how much it cost to that firm to get capital in the form of equity, debt or both. 

Financial Option

financial-options
A financial option is a contract, defined as a derivative drawing its value on a set of underlying variables (perhaps the volatility of the stock underlying the option). It comprises two parties (option writer and option buyer). This contract offers the right of the option holder to purchase the underlying asset at an agreed price.

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