Profitability Ratios

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Profitability RatioDescriptionWhen to UseExampleFormula
Return on Equity (ROE)Measures a company’s profitability relative to shareholders’ equity.Assess how efficiently equity is used to generate profits.An ROE of 15% indicates a company generated a 15% return on shareholders’ equity.ROE = Net Income / Shareholders’ Equity
Return on Assets (ROA)Measures a company’s profitability relative to its total assets.Assess how efficiently assets are used to generate profits.An ROA of 10% means a company earned a 10% return on total assets.ROA = Net Income / Total Assets
Gross MarginMeasures the percentage of revenue that remains after subtracting the cost of goods sold (COGS).Assess a company’s ability to control production costs.A gross margin of 30% indicates a 70% profit on COGS.Gross Margin = (Revenue – COGS) / Revenue
Operating MarginMeasures the percentage of revenue that remains after operating expenses are deducted.Assess a company’s operational efficiency.An operating margin of 15% means 15% of revenue remains as profit after operating expenses.Operating Margin = Operating Income / Revenue
Net Profit MarginMeasures the percentage of revenue that remains as profit after all expenses, including taxes and interest.Assess overall profitability.A net profit margin of 8% means 8% of revenue is profit after all expenses.Net Profit Margin = Net Income / Revenue
Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT) MarginMeasures the percentage of revenue that remains before interest and taxes are deducted.Assess operating performance without considering financing decisions.An EBIT margin of 20% indicates strong operational performance.EBIT Margin = Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT) / Revenue
Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization (EBITDA) MarginMeasures the percentage of revenue that remains before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization are deducted.Assess operating performance with a focus on cash flow.An EBITDA margin of 25% indicates efficient operation.EBITDA Margin = EBITDA / Revenue
Free Cash Flow (FCF) MarginMeasures the percentage of revenue that remains as free cash flow after all operating and capital expenses.Evaluate a company’s ability to generate cash.An FCF margin of 10% means 10% of revenue is available as free cash flow.FCF Margin = FCF / Revenue
Return on Sales (ROS)Measures the percentage of revenue that remains as profit after all expenses.Assess overall profitability.An ROS of 12% means 12% of revenue is profit after all expenses.ROS = Net Income / Total Revenue
Net Profit Margin RatioMeasures the relationship between net profit and total revenue as a ratio.Assess the portion of revenue that is retained as profit.A net profit margin ratio of 0.12 means 12% of revenue is profit.Net Profit Margin Ratio = Net Profit / Total Revenue
Operating Income Margin RatioMeasures the percentage of total revenue that is retained as operating income.Assess the efficiency of core operations.An operating income margin ratio of 0.18 indicates 18% of revenue is operating income.Operating Income Margin Ratio = Operating Income / Total Revenue
Gross Profit Margin RatioMeasures the relationship between gross profit and total revenue as a ratio.Assess the profit retained after accounting for production costs.A gross profit margin ratio of 0.40 indicates 40% of revenue is gross profit.Gross Profit Margin Ratio = Gross Profit / Total Revenue
Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT) Margin RatioMeasures the proportion of EBIT to total revenue as a ratio.Evaluate the efficiency of operations in generating EBIT.An EBIT margin ratio of 0.15 means 15% of revenue is EBIT.EBIT Margin Ratio = EBIT / Total Revenue
Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization (EBITDA) Margin RatioMeasures the proportion of EBITDA to total revenue as a ratio.Assess the efficiency of operations in generating EBITDA.An EBITDA margin ratio of 0.25 means 25% of revenue is EBITDA.EBITDA Margin Ratio = EBITDA / Total Revenue
Net Profit Margin PercentageMeasures the percentage of net profit relative to total revenue.Assess the profit retained after all expenses.A net profit margin percentage of 10% means 10% of revenue is net profit.Net Profit Margin Percentage = (Net Profit / Total Revenue) * 100
Operating Income Margin PercentageMeasures the percentage of operating income relative to total revenue.Evaluate the efficiency of core operations.An operating income margin percentage of 18% means 18% of revenue is operating income.Operating Income Margin Percentage = (Operating Income / Total Revenue) * 100
Gross Profit Margin PercentageMeasures the percentage of gross profit relative to total revenue.Assess the profit retained after accounting for production costs.A gross profit margin percentage of 40% means 40% of revenue is gross profit.Gross Profit Margin Percentage = (Gross Profit / Total Revenue) * 100
Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT) Margin PercentageMeasures the percentage of EBIT relative to total revenue.Evaluate the efficiency of operations in generating EBIT.An EBIT margin percentage of 15% means 15% of revenue is EBIT.EBIT Margin Percentage = (EBIT / Total Revenue) * 100
Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization (EBITDA) Margin PercentageMeasures the percentage of EBITDA relative to total revenue.Assess the efficiency of operations in generating EBITDA.An EBITDA margin percentage of 25% means 25% of revenue is EBITDA.EBITDA Margin Percentage = (EBITDA / Total Revenue) * 100
The Enlightened Accountant by Gennaro Cuofano – FourWeekMBADownload

Connected Financial Concepts

Circle of Competence

circle-of-competence
The circle of competence describes a person’s natural competence in an area that matches their skills and abilities. Beyond this imaginary circle are skills and abilities that a person is naturally less competent at. The concept was popularised by Warren Buffett, who argued that investors should only invest in companies they know and understand. However, the circle of competence applies to any topic and indeed any individual.

What is a Moat

moat
Economic or market moats represent the long-term business defensibility. Or how long a business can retain its competitive advantage in the marketplace over the years. Warren Buffet who popularized the term “moat” referred to it as a share of mind, opposite to market share, as such it is the characteristic that all valuable brands have.

Buffet Indicator

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The Buffet Indicator is a measure of the total value of all publicly-traded stocks in a country divided by that country’s GDP. It’s a measure and ratio to evaluate whether a market is undervalued or overvalued. It’s one of Warren Buffet’s favorite measures as a warning that financial markets might be overvalued and riskier.

Venture Capital

venture-capital
Venture capital is a form of investing skewed toward high-risk bets, that are likely to fail. Therefore venture capitalists look for higher returns. Indeed, venture capital is based on the power law, or the law for which a small number of bets will pay off big time for the larger numbers of low-return or investments that will go to zero. That is the whole premise of venture capital.

Foreign Direct Investment

foreign-direct-investment
Foreign direct investment occurs when an individual or business purchases an interest of 10% or more in a company that operates in a different country. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), this percentage implies that the investor can influence or participate in the management of an enterprise. When the interest is less than 10%, on the other hand, the IMF simply defines it as a security that is part of a stock portfolio. Foreign direct investment (FDI), therefore, involves the purchase of an interest in a company by an entity that is located in another country. 

Micro-Investing

micro-investing
Micro-investing is the process of investing small amounts of money regularly. The process of micro-investing involves small and sometimes irregular investments where the individual can set up recurring payments or invest a lump sum as cash becomes available.

Meme Investing

meme-investing
Meme stocks are securities that go viral online and attract the attention of the younger generation of retail investors. Meme investing, therefore, is a bottom-up, community-driven approach to investing that positions itself as the antonym to Wall Street investing. Also, meme investing often looks at attractive opportunities with lower liquidity that might be easier to overtake, thus enabling wide speculation, as “meme investors” often look for disproportionate short-term returns.

Retail Investing

retail-investing
Retail investing is the act of non-professional investors buying and selling securities for their own purposes. Retail investing has become popular with the rise of zero commissions digital platforms enabling anyone with small portfolio to trade.

Accredited Investor

accredited-investor
Accredited investors are individuals or entities deemed sophisticated enough to purchase securities that are not bound by the laws that protect normal investors. These may encompass venture capital, angel investments, private equity funds, hedge funds, real estate investment funds, and specialty investment funds such as those related to cryptocurrency. Accredited investors, therefore, are individuals or entities permitted to invest in securities that are complex, opaque, loosely regulated, or otherwise unregistered with a financial authority.

Startup Valuation

startup-valuation
Startup valuation describes a suite of methods used to value companies with little or no revenue. Therefore, startup valuation is the process of determining what a startup is worth. This value clarifies the company’s capacity to meet customer and investor expectations, achieve stated milestones, and use the new capital to grow.

Profit vs. Cash Flow

profit-vs-cash-flow
Profit is the total income that a company generates from its operations. This includes money from sales, investments, and other income sources. In contrast, cash flow is the money that flows in and out of a company. This distinction is critical to understand as a profitable company might be short of cash and have liquidity crises.

Double-Entry

double-entry-accounting
Double-entry accounting is the foundation of modern financial accounting. It’s based on the accounting equation, where assets equal liabilities plus equity. That is the fundamental unit to build financial statements (balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement). The basic concept of double-entry is that a single transaction, to be recorded, will hit two accounts.

Balance Sheet

balance-sheet
The purpose of the balance sheet is to report how the resources to run the operations of the business were acquired. The Balance Sheet helps to assess the financial risk of a business and the simplest way to describe it is given by the accounting equation (assets = liability + equity).

Income Statement

income-statement
The income statement, together with the balance sheet and the cash flow statement is among the key financial statements to understand how companies perform at fundamental level. The income statement shows the revenues and costs for a period and whether the company runs at profit or loss (also called P&L statement).

Cash Flow Statement

cash-flow-statement
The cash flow statement is the third main financial statement, together with income statement and the balance sheet. It helps to assess the liquidity of an organization by showing the cash balances coming from operations, investing and financing. The cash flow statement can be prepared with two separate methods: direct or indirect.

Capital Structure

capital-structure
The capital structure shows how an organization financed its operations. Following the balance sheet structure, usually, assets of an organization can be built either by using equity or liability. Equity usually comprises endowment from shareholders and profit reserves. Where instead, liabilities can comprise either current (short-term debt) or non-current (long-term obligations).

Capital Expenditure

capital-expenditure
Capital expenditure or capital expense represents the money spent toward things that can be classified as fixed asset, with a longer term value. As such they will be recorded under non-current assets, on the balance sheet, and they will be amortized over the years. The reduced value on the balance sheet is expensed through the profit and loss.

Financial Statements

financial-statements
Financial statements help companies assess several aspects of the business, from profitability (income statement) to how assets are sourced (balance sheet), and cash inflows and outflows (cash flow statement). Financial statements are also mandatory to companies for tax purposes. They are also used by managers to assess the performance of the business.

Financial Modeling

financial-modeling
Financial modeling involves the analysis of accounting, finance, and business data to predict future financial performance. Financial modeling is often used in valuation, which consists of estimating the value in dollar terms of a company based on several parameters. Some of the most common financial models comprise discounted cash flows, the M&A model, and the CCA model.

Business Valuation

valuation
Business valuations involve a formal analysis of the key operational aspects of a business. A business valuation is an analysis used to determine the economic value of a business or company unit. It’s important to note that valuations are one part science and one part art. Analysts use professional judgment to consider the financial performance of a business with respect to local, national, or global economic conditions. They will also consider the total value of assets and liabilities, in addition to patented or proprietary technology.

Financial Ratio

financial-ratio-formulas

WACC

weighted-average-cost-of-capital
The Weighted Average Cost of Capital can also be defined as the cost of capital. That’s a rate – net of the weight of the equity and debt the company holds – that assesses how much it cost to that firm to get capital in the form of equity, debt or both. 

Financial Option

financial-options
A financial option is a contract, defined as a derivative drawing its value on a set of underlying variables (perhaps the volatility of the stock underlying the option). It comprises two parties (option writer and option buyer). This contract offers the right of the option holder to purchase the underlying asset at an agreed price.

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